The DOI matches its Crossref record; 104 of the 106 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 4 of the 37 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses.
Open accessAbstract
Whether spanking is helpful or harmful to children continues to be the source of considerable debate among both researchers and the public. This article addresses 2 persistent issues, namely whether effect sizes for spanking are distinct from those for physical abuse, and whether effect sizes for spanking are robust to study design differences. Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children. Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes. Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Claims the paper makes
28 Own result · 21 Own interpretation · 10 No full text of the sources · 7 Own method · 6 Sources not found · 4 Not checked yet · 3 No basis given · 2 Supported · 1 Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“A series of cross-lagged studies (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff, Lansford, Sexton, Davis-Kean, & Sameroff, 2012; McLeod, Kruttschnitt, & Dornfeld, 1994; Sheehan & Watson, 2008) has demonstrated that spanking predicts changes in children’s behavior, over and above their initial levels and the child effect of early problem behavior on later spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Berlin et al., 2009 source
The Results (page unavailable) describe cross-lagged models that estimated spanking-to-child-outcome paths alongside child-behavior-to-later-spanking paths. They report that spanking at age 1 predicted aggressive behavior problems at age 2, while aggressive behavior problems at age 2 did not predict spanking at age 3. The finding is specific to these low-income toddlers and these ages; other spanking-to-aggression paths were not significant. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Supportedcites Gershoff et al., 2012 source
The Results section describes a cross-lagged model that tests whether kindergarten spanking predicts third-grade externalizing behavior while controlling for initial behavior and the reverse path from early externalizing behavior to later spanking. The Abstract reports that early spanking predicted increases in externalizing behavior, while early externalizing behavior predicted more spanking. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not matchedcites McLeod et al., 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The remaining four meta-analyses were not significantly different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only 75 studies met all four criteria and were retained for the meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Longitudinal effect sizes of the bivariate links between spanking and later child outcomes do not rule out the potential for a child elicitation effect; however, so few studies report a coefficient that controls only for initial child behavior (and not for a range of other covariates) that we are unable to meta-analyze them.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The magnitude of the mean effect size for spanking was 65% of the magnitude of the mean effect size for physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 13 statistically significant mean effect sizes ranged in size from .15 to .64.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the tests were significant, indicating that the risk of publication bias for any of our mean effect sizes is small.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Tests for Publication Bias
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 40
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“analysis of data from a national randomized controlled trial of the federal Head Start program for low income children found that parents in the program significantly reduced their spanking, which was in turn linked with decreases in child aggression over time (Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016 source
The Results report a significant reduction in spanking associated with Head Start participation. The Discussion states that reduced spanking predicted reduced child aggression over time. The paper also cautions that the indirect effect of Head Start on aggression through spanking was not statistically significant; the claim does not say that it was. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Both behaviors involve parents intentionally hitting (and hurting) children, albeit to different degrees (Gershoff, 2013)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, 2013 source
The section “Spanking Is Linked With Numerous Adverse Side Effects” states that spanking and physical abuse both involve hitting and purposefully hurting children. It says the difference is often one of degree—such as duration or force—rather than intent. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The weighted mean effect size for spanking was d = .25, while for physical abuse it was d = .38. Both were significantly different from zero and both were positive in sign”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
“Spanking in these studies was significantly associated with detrimental outcomes with an effect size d = .25, while the mean effect size for physical abuse for these studies was significant and d = .38”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The largest effect size was for physical abuse; the more children are spanked, the greater the risk that they will be physically abused by their parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In childhood, parental use of spanking was associated with low moral internalization, aggression, antisocial behavior, externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, mental health problems, negative parent–child relationships, impaired cognitive ability, low self-esteem, and risk of physical abuse from parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Three outcomes in childhood were not significantly associated with spanking in the meta-analyses: immediate defiance, child alcohol or substance abuse, and low-self regulation.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In adulthood, prior experiences of parental use of spanking were significantly associated with adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and with positive attitudes about spanking.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Three of the four adult outcomes were significantly associated with a history of spanking from parents: adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and adult support for physical punishment.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of the comparisons were nonsignificant, indicating that the effect sizes did not vary by study characteristic.”
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
“Average effect sizes also did not significantly vary based on how spanking was measured, how it was indexed, whether the raters of spanking and outcome were independent, the time period over which spanking was measured, the country of the study, or the age group of the children studied.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An important observation about the meta-analyses is that the individual studies are highly consistent: 71% of all of the effect sizes, and 99% of the significant effect sizes, indicated a significant association between parental spanking and detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Of the 111 individual effect sizes, 102 were in the direction of a detrimental outcome with 78 of these statistically significant. In contrast, nine of the effect sizes were in the direction of a beneficial outcome but only one (Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975) was statistically different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975 source
plaincorrelationaln = 111- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overall mean weighted effect size across all of the 111 study-level effect sizes was d = .33, with a 95% confidence interval of .29 to .38; this mean effect was statistically different from zero, Z = 14.84, p < .001.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spanking was significantly associated with 13 of the 17 outcomes examined. In each case, spanking was associated with a greater likelihood of detrimental child outcomes.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Thirteen of the 17 child outcomes examined were found to be significantly associated with parents’ use of spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A total of 111 unique effect sizes were derived from data representing 204,410 child measurement occasions; these studies included data from a total of 160,927 unique children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two of the studies contributed more than one effect size, yielding a total of 10 pairs of effect sizes for spanking and physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses did not find any support for the contentions that spanking is only associated with detrimental outcomes when it is combined with abusive methods or that spanking is only associated with such outcomes in methodologically weak studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While it was indeed true that the majority of studies (70%) were cross-sectional or retrospective in nature, the effect sizes for the longitudinal and experimental studies were not significantly different from the effect sizes for the cross-sectional studies (see Table 4).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The mean effect size across all studies, d = .33, was smaller than the overall mean effect size reported by Gershoff (2002), d = .40, but still statistically significant.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-analyses presented here found no evidence that spanking is associated with improved child behavior and rather found spanking to be associated with increased risk of 13 detrimental outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, both effect sizes are significant and positive, indicating that both are associated with more undesirable child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Been Confounded With Harsher Forms of Physical Punishment
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, while not a perfect solution, longitudinal bivariate coefficients are decidedly stronger methodologically than within-time coefficients.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All study-level effect sizes were calculated independently by each of the authors; for all effect sizes, agreement was achieved to at least the third decimal place.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The failure to reach significance for immediate defiance appears to result from the small n (150), while for child alcohol or substance abuse and low self-regulation the cause appears to be heterogeneity in effect sizes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Each of these four meta-analyses included a different set of articles and came to varied conclusions, namely that physical punishment is largely ineffective and harmful (Gershoff, 2002), that physical punishment is effective under certain circumstances (Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005), and that physical punishment is linked with children’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems but only modestly (F”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the second step of coding, each of these 558 potential studies was coded independently by each of the authors. Any disagreements in coding were resolved through follow-up discussion.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The finding that spanking was not linked with immediate defiance was unexpected given the opposite findings in the Gershoff (2002) meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When discrepancies occurred in effect size calculations, the discrepancy was discussed, and then each author independently recalculated the effect size. This process was repeated, if necessary, until consensus was achieved.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While this is clearly a beneficial outcome, the uniqueness of the sample limits the generalizability of this finding and may explain why this study is an outlier”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Taken together, these meta-analyses provide evidence that physical punishment is associated with negative child outcomes, particularly when the outcomes are divided into finer-grained categories (Ferguson, 2013; Gershoff, 2002) rather than when they are grouped into broad categories (Paolucci & Violato, 2004), and that harsher methods of physical punishment are more strongly associated with”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Previous Meta-Analyses of Physical Punishment and Spanking
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The only study that found a significant association with a beneficial outcome, Tennant, Detels, and Clark (1975), had a unique sample (U.S. Army soldiers stationed in West Germany in 1971 and 1972, most of whom were White [77%]), and found that soldiers who recalled being spanked were less likely to report using amphetamines or opiates.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark (1975) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The circumstances of experimentally manipulated spanking thus are likely to be unusual, leading to concern that experiments with parental spanking may suffer from a lack of external validity.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, parents’ use of spanking is not easily or ethically studied through an experimental design, as children cannot be randomly assigned to parents with varying predispositions to spank, nor can parents typically be randomly assigned to spank or not spank.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two primary concerns that have been raised about past meta-analyses are that spanking has been confounded with potentially abusive parenting behaviors in some studies and that spanking has only been linked with detrimental outcomes in methodologically weak studies (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of these studies using advanced statistical methods found evidence that the pathway is entirely one of selection or child elicitation, or that spanking predicts improvements in children’s behavior over time”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the association only indicates that milder and more severe corporal punishment are linked, and that the former may increase the risk that children will also be physically abused.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding indicates that methodologically stronger studies did not find significantly smaller effect sizes than methodologically weaker studies, lending more confidence to the findings from the main meta-analyses that include both.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“given that a correlational association is a necessary condition for a causal relationship (Shadish et al., 2001), we can conclude that the data are consistent with a conclusion that spanking is associated with undesirable outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shadish et al., 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“many researchers have argued that spanking and physical abuse are on a continuum of violence against children, and that spanking can escalate into physical abuse (Straus, 2001)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Straus, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct, and thus this shortcoming of the literature will be difficult to correct through future studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As most of the included studies were correlational or retrospective (72%), causal links between spanking and child outcomes cannot be established by these meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across study designs, countries, and age groups, spanking has been linked with detrimental outcomes for children, a fact supported by several key methodologically strong studies that isolate the ability of spanking to predict child outcomes over time.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A major concern raised about the spanking literature in general and previous meta-analyses in particular is that their reliance on cross-sectional designs may mask what are truly child-elicitation effects (Baumrind et al., 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere et al., 2004). In other words, associations between spanking and problematic behavior may reflect the fact that difficult children elicit more sp”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“most instances of substantiated physical abuse (75%), like all instances of spanking, begin as responses to children’s misbehavior (Durrant et al., 2006).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Durrant et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across all categories, methodologically stronger study designs identified the same risk for negative outcomes as did weaker study designs, suggesting that the associations between spanking and child outcomes are robust to study design.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the mean effect size for all studies from Table 2, d = .33, is closer to the mean effect size for physical abuse in Table 3 than it is to the mean effect size for spanking from these 10 select effect sizes, indicating that spanking and physical abuse have relations with child outcomes that are similar in magnitude and identical in direction.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Approximately 80% of children are spanked.
“when extrapolated to the population in which 80% of children are being spanked”
The paper relies on this without support.
Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The meta-analysis of Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) found no effect size difference between spanking and physical abuse, demonstrating that both share similar associations with detrimental child outcomes.”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Over a span of five decades, numerous cross-cultural studies, longitudinal investigations (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff et al., 2012), and large meta-analyses (Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) provide converging evidence regarding the harmful outcomes, which include depression or depressed mood (Fergusson et al., 2008), antisocial behavior (Straus et al., 1997), substance use, Su”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentz = 14.84reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Z = 14.84, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
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“The first and most widely cited of the meta-analyses was by Gershoff (2002).”
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Items 801–900 of 924
Girls, mental health problems, and offending: findings from a community sample
Persson, L., & Ivert, A. (2025) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-025-00907-3
Social normative approaches to behaviour change
Amin, S., & Hanan, A. A.-F. (2025) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844071.003.0010
Joseph, G., Benn, A., Boston, C., Lowe, D., Jeeboo, K., Arthur-Tucker, L.-T., Choy, L., Lashley, L., Houvèssou, G. M., Hopkinson, T., et al. (2025) · Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública · doi:10.26633/rpsp.2025.58
Poulsen, A. (2025) · Queensland University of Technology · doi:10.5204/thesis.eprints.257453
Exploring how Canadian Correctional Workers Understand their Adverse Childhood Experiences
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“This is concerning given a substantial body of literature documenting the harmful effects of physical punishment on developmental outcomes across the lifespan (Afifi et al., 2012, 2017; For-tier et al., 2021; Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
Jegatheeswaran, C., Burns, S., & Perlman, M. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15060786 · Cited by 1
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“Previous studies looking into the effects of parenting practices, such as spanking, on child externalizing behaviors mostly used parent reports as measures of children ’ s behavioral outcomes (for review, see Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Lee et al., 2020; MacKenzie et al., 2015).”
Carl, T., & Bussey, K. (2025) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12812
The Usefulness of Multilevel Modeling and Multilevel Thinking
Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.003.0001
Self-citationGrogan‐Kaylor, A. C. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.003.0004
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Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.003.0005
Self-citationGrogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.002.0005
Self-citationGrogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.005.0001
Self-citationModels With More Complicated Structures
Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.003.0008
Self-citationGrogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.002.0006
Self-citationGrogan‐Kaylor, A. C. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.003.0009
Self-citationGrogan‐Kaylor, A. C. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.001.0001 · Cited by 1
Self-citationSimulated Multicountry (Multilevel) Data
Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.003.0003
Self-citationGrogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.005.0002
Self-citationGrogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.003.0002
Self-citationMultilevel Logistic Regression
Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.003.0007
Self-citationThe Longitudinal Multilevel Model
Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197806494.003.0006
Self-citationExpanded parenting typology and youth outcomes among a sample of Chinese adolescents
Vickovic, S., Liu, W., & Wang, X. (2025) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102453 · Cited by 1
Temporal change in the prevalence and etiology of youth antisocial behavior.
Burt, S. A., Carroll, S., Clark, S. L., Klump, K. L., & Hyde, L. W. (2025) · Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science · doi:10.1037/abn0001034
Yost, B. S. (2025) · The Southern Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.1111/sjp.70003
Keeney, C., Fairbrother, N., Kitchin, V., Stagg, B., Fawcett, E. J., Vaziri, A., Xu, C. T., Lahey, C. A., & Fawcett, J. M. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5335702
Anchunda, H. Y., & Kaewurai, W. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5364879
Physical Punishment as a Practice of Violence Against Children
Hohendorff, J. V., França, T., da Silva, A. C. P., et al. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-91786-8_5
Moore, S. A., Barnes, S., Greene, A. F., et al. (2025) · Journal of Mental Health and Social Behaviour · doi:10.33790/jmhsb1100195
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“In addition, meta-analyses have found positive associations between harsh parenting and child aggressive traits, including physical aggression, both contemporaneously and longitudinally in children and adolescents (37,38).”
Temporal Evolution and Projections of Violence Against Women in Brazil: Scenarios from 2013 to 2033
Coelho, M. D. M. F., Oriá, M. O. B., Tamboril, A. C. R., Moreira, W. C., de Oliveira, B. A., Martins, M. C., Coutinho, J. F. V., Diniz, J. L., Gubert, F. D. A., de Albuquerque, T. R., et al. (2025) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251355969
“These data indicate the need for public policies that provide psychological support to these mothers, preventing the escalation of this practice (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
Children Skills DevelopmentPreprint
Rattini, V. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5338294
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Nuntavisit, L., & Porter, M. R. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22081310 · Cited by 3
“Lack of effective parenting has been associated with adolescent mental health problems, substance misuse, school disengagement and juvenile offending [12,13].”
Research shows it’s harmful to smack your child, so what should parents do instead?
Higgins, D. J., & Havighurst, S. S. (2022) · doi:10.64628/aa.av4tumtcc
Attitudes About Child Maltreatment Among Immigrant Mothers from São Tomé and Príncipe
do Nascimento, S., Baptista, J., & Camilo, C. (2025) · International Journal on Child Maltreatment Research Policy and Practice · doi:10.1007/s42448-025-00236-0
“…expanding body of research highlights the link between child maltreatment and adverse developmental outcomes, with long-term consequences across multiple domains, including cognitive, emotional, and behavioural functioning (Cui et al., 2020; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Kavanaugh et al., 2017).”
Druskin, L. R., Phillips, S. T., Kohlhoff, J. R., Owen, C. K., Han, R. C., Franzese, S. N., Wallace, N. M., Cibralic, S., Morgan, S., & McNeil, C. B. (2025) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.70045
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“…psychological and developmental disorders, aggression, low self-confidence, impaired moral internalization, increased risk of delinquency, and a higher likelihood of continuing violence in later life (Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Heilmann et al., 2021; Straus & Donnelly, 2017).”
Baba, S., Kohashi, K., Yamaoka, Y., et al. (2025) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107704
Trujillo, Á., Bernal, M. R. G., & Amorocho, J. D. (2025) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe15110223
Parent and Child Measures in Zimbabwe: an Assessment of Metric Validity
Dari, N. K. W., Ward, C., & Kamangira, B. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03198-6
“…aggression (for instance, shouting, sham-ing) and corporal punishment, which are all forms of VAC (Ravi & Ahluwalia, 2017) Harsh discipline methods may cause child behavioural and emotional problems, which may feed further into a cycle of harsh parenting(Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
(2020) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64113-962-520251015
Duong, H. T., Popova, L., & Baggett, K. M. (2025) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-025-01024-7
Zhu, Z., Jia, C., Jiao, D., et al. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5967824
Balancing discipline and rights: Insights from school management teams on corporal punishment
Masoabi, B. J., & Lamula-Mthanti, B. (2026) · International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147-4478) · doi:10.20525/ijrbs.v14i10.4703
“…research demonstrates that corporal punishment is associated with adverse psychological, behavioural, and academic outcomes, including increased aggression, anxiety, diminished learner–teacher trust, and long-term antisocial behaviour (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Lansford et al., 2021).”
Bechtiger, L., Bürgin, D., Vasconcelos, G. F., Ribeaud, D., Eisner, M., & Shanahan, L. (2026) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-025-02953-w
Kyeong, Y., Koyama, Y., Sudo, M., Kee, M. Z. L., Chen, H., Eriksson, J. G., Yap, F. K. P., Chong, Y. S., Tiemeier, H. W., & Setoh, P. (2026) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.70113 · Cited by 1
“This aligns with extensive prior research indicating the relation between physical discipline and behavioral problems (e.g., Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016), though the causal direction remains undetermined.”
Ji, H., & Wang, Y. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.107918
Bi, S., Liu, L., Liu, Q., & Cao, Y. (2026) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.70158
Park, K., & Cho, E. (2026) · Journal of Korean maternal and child health (Online) · doi:10.21896/jkmch.2026.30.1.37
Kit, A., Miyazaki, A., Hashimoto, S., Kawabata, Y., Astuti, A. W., & Honda, S. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440261424001
“These findings are consistent with a large body of evidence showing that corporal punishment is associated with a range of negative outcomes in children across cultures (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
Lee, D., & Jung, H. (2026) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x261421971
Jensen, S. K. G., Placencio‐Castro, M., Murray, S. M., Sezibera, V., & Betancourt, T. S. (2026) · Children · doi:10.3390/children13030344
“Although the use of harsh discipline is found to be more widespread in socioeconomically vulnerable households, compelling evidence suggests that effects of violence on child outcomes are independent of family-level socio-economic status [27] and country-level wealth [29].”
Keeney, C., Fairbrother, N., Kitchin, V., Stagg, B., Fawcett, E. J., Vaziri, A., Xu, C. T., Lahey, C. A., & Fawcett, J. M. (2026) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2026.103812
“3,25–27 A large meta-analysis of over 160,000 children found that spanking was strongly and consistently associated with detrimental child outcomes.”
InfluentialRethinking Parental Risk Factors of Harsh Parenting: The Perspective of Psychometric Networks
Zhang, Y., Johnson‐Motoyama, M., Yoon, S., & Barboza‐Salerno, G. (2026) · Child & Family Social Work · doi:10.1111/cfs.70160 · Cited by 1
Discipline Patterns and Child Externalizing Problems in Low-Income Unmarried Families
Zhang, Y., Allbright-Campos, M., Chang, Y., & Yoon, S. (2026) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-026-01080-7
Raising Resilience or Risk? The Mental Health Consequences of Violent Parenting in Ghana
Abdulai, M. G., Kuunibe, N., & Sekyi, S. (2026) · Journal of Applied Social Science · doi:10.1177/19367244261423920
“Culturally, disciplinary practices such as corporal punishment, verbal reprimands, and obedi-ence-focused parenting remain widely accepted and are often viewed as essential for instilling respect and preventing behavioral deviance (Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
Bowser, B., DeGruy, J. A., & Jeff, J. (2026) · Journal of Black Studies · doi:10.1177/00219347261432993
Kinder und Jugendliche als Betroffene von Gewalt
Stiller, A. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-48467-5_32
Afifi, T. O., Mathews, B., Salmon, S., Osorio, A., MacGowan, L., Stewart-Tufescu, A., & Taillieu, T. (2026) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.17269/s41997-026-01190-1
Silva, L. F., & Leite, F. M. C. (2026) · Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP · doi:10.1590/1980-220x-reeusp-2025-0351en
“Furthermore, other studies have already proven that corporal punishment is an inefficient disciplinary method that tends to produce immediate obedience, but does not foster emotional self-regulation or awareness of one’s actions (28) .”
Silva, L. F., & Leite, F. M. C. (2026) · Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP · doi:10.1590/1980-220x-reeusp-2025-0351pt
Silva, L. F., & Leite, F. M. C. (2026) · Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP · doi:10.1590/1980-220x-reeusp-2025-0351es
Kapoor, A., Kaur, K., & Kaur, K. (2026) · Journal of Mental Health and Human Behaviour · doi:10.4103/jmhhb.jmhhb_3_26
Valenzuela, N., Trujillo, A., & Bernal, M. R. G. (2026) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-026-00867-6
“…inflicts on children’s development and well-being, as well as its ineffectiveness in promoting positive behavioral 2021 ; Font & Maguire-Jack, 2020 ; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016 ; Farrington & Malvaso, 2023 ; Lemos & Pérez, 2021 ; Parolin & Simonelli, 2016 ; Wang et al., 2022 ; Ward et al.,…”
InfluentialNagata, A., Rahman, M. S., TAKEMOTO, A., Akter, L., Xaypadith, S., Onishi, K., Tsuchiya, K. J., & Senju, A. (2026) · Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.2188/jea.je20250377
Chen, J.-K., Wu, C., & Wang, Z.-Y. (2026) · Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2026.2660185
“…indicating that such attitudes increased the risk of adverse psychological and behavioral outcomes among students (Chen et al., 2021; Grujicic et al., 2023), others have found an insignificant correlation, suggesting a more complex inter-play of factors (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
InfluentialSocio-Demographic Factors Shaping Parental Awareness of Children’s Positive Self-Concept Development
Bustamam, N., Asfaruddin, K., Yahya, M., & Chalidaziah, W. (2025) · Konselor · doi:10.24036/02025144138-0-86
No evidence that anti-domestic violence laws reduce violent child discipline in sub-Saharan Africa
Wu, H., & Pesando, L. M. (2026) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2026.119335
Peter, L., Sitarski, E., Köhler‐Dauner, F., & Fegert, J. M. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.108078
Spanking and Young Childrens Socioemotional Development in Low- and Middle-Income CountriesPreprint
Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Lee, S. J., & Pace, G. T. (2020) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Self-citationFleckman, J. M., Piñeros-Leaño, M., Brown, K., Bai, R., Scholer, S. J., & Taylor, C. A. (2026) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2026.109026 · Cited by 1
(2026) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394461691.refs
Patterns of Family Harsh Parenting and the Effects of Cumulative Risks
Zhang, Y., Johnson‐Motoyama, M., Yoon, S., & Barboza‐Salerno, G. (2026) · Child & Family Social Work · doi:10.1111/cfs.70209
What Do Parents Say About the Positive Discipline in Everyday Parenting Program in Canada?
Broussard, C., Quinones, J. N. V., Ateah, C. A., Holden, G. W., & Romano, E. (2026) · Marriage & Family Review · doi:10.1080/01494929.2026.2666785
Moore, S., D’Errico, A., Keller, S., Vivian, J., & Greene, A. (2026) · International Journal on Child Maltreatment Research Policy and Practice · doi:10.1007/s42448-026-00268-0
Naknong, N., & Pholphirul, P. (2026) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.70134
Snow, K., Langan, D., Cislaghi, B., Shenderovich, Y., Siu, G., Guedes, A. C., Heise, L., & Gardner, F. E. M. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-9897766/v1
Amorim, M., Severo, M., & Fraga, S. J. D. S. (2026) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckag104
Thrasher, S. S., Watts, K. J., Barnhart, S., Conner, L. R., & George, N. (2026) · Families in Society The Journal of Contemporary Social Services · doi:10.1177/10443894261441128
Muyanga, M. A., Namuli, J. D., Nalugya, J. S., Kaddumukasa, M., Sajatovic, M., Mwesiga, E. K., Katama, S., & Akena, D. (2026) · PLOS mental health. · doi:10.1371/journal.pmen.0000588
“A meta-analysis by Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) found that physical punishment is consistently associated with adverse child behaviors including risks of anxiety, aggression and depression [34].”
Parental Views on Discipline and Parenting Practices Post‐Physical Punishment Ban in Wales
James, L., & Rodriguez-Morales, L. (2026) · Children & Society · doi:10.1111/chso.70062
Adewuya, A. O., Wright, O., Njokanma, F. O., & Oladipo, O. E. (2026) · JAACAP Open · doi:10.1016/j.jaacop.2026.06.004
Rong, E., Wang, J., & Luan, Y. (2026) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2026.113949
Lin, R., & 张, H. P. 华. Z. (2026) · Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development · doi:10.1080/29949769.2026.2685710
Anchunda, H. Y., & Kaewurai, W. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1803359
Romano, E., & Zak, S. (2026) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13591045261466511
“The finding for physical punishment is not surprising as there is solid research on its negative child impacts (e.g., Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), and it is not included in the parenting approaches to which trainees are exposed.”
Timing and type of domestic violence exposure and adolescents’ experiences of peer violence
No, U., Kim, E. K., & You, S. (2026) · Child Development · doi:10.1093/chidev/aacag123
Parent Perspectives on the Integration of a Parenting Assessment Tool into Pediatric Primary Care
Carr, V. L., Whitney, A., Antoun, J., Carlson, K. L., Stoppelbein, M., Slaughter, J. C., & Scholer, S. J. (2026) · Academic Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2026.103391 · Cited by 1
Childhood Maltreatment and Subsequent Adult Reliance on Physical Child Discipline
Brezinski, S., & King, A. R. (2026) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-026-01145-7
The Links Between Mindful Parenting, Maternal Parenting Stress, and Harsh Parenting
Sanders, H., Davis, A. N., Kelly, R. J., Streit, C., Lardier, D. T., & Qi, C. H. (2026) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2026.2701329
Physical punishment of children: ineffective and harmful
Heilmann, A., Holland, S., Lacey, R. E., et al. (2026) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2026-100233
Self-citationBai, R., Collins, C. C., Su, S., et al. (2026) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2026.109189
Başpınar, A., & Okay, H. (2026) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.70306
Wallimann, M. S., Dinh, H. T., Quehenberger, J., Nguyen, H. T., Nguyen, T., Le, T. M., Lätsch, D., & Gabriel, T. (2026) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-026-01107-4 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Family Psychology
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 453-469
- ISSN
- 0893-3200 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1293
- PMC
- PMC7992110
- OpenAlex
- W2325391559
- Semantic Scholar
- 0d03a2e9f085f0a268b4c0a52f5ac31c17a3e5f3
- Cited by
- 931
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 97 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 18
- FWCI
- 125.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Family Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD042849)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Keywords
- spanking, corporal punishment, child outcomes, physical abuse, effect size, child development
- MeSH terms
- Aggression, Child, Child Abuse, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Humans, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Punishment, Research Design, Parenting
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