The DOI matches its Crossref record; 104 of the 106 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 4 of the 37 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses.
Open accessAbstract
Whether spanking is helpful or harmful to children continues to be the source of considerable debate among both researchers and the public. This article addresses 2 persistent issues, namely whether effect sizes for spanking are distinct from those for physical abuse, and whether effect sizes for spanking are robust to study design differences. Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children. Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes. Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Claims the paper makes
28 Own result · 21 Own interpretation · 10 No full text of the sources · 7 Own method · 6 Sources not found · 4 Not checked yet · 3 No basis given · 2 Supported · 1 Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“A series of cross-lagged studies (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff, Lansford, Sexton, Davis-Kean, & Sameroff, 2012; McLeod, Kruttschnitt, & Dornfeld, 1994; Sheehan & Watson, 2008) has demonstrated that spanking predicts changes in children’s behavior, over and above their initial levels and the child effect of early problem behavior on later spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Berlin et al., 2009 source
The Results (page unavailable) describe cross-lagged models that estimated spanking-to-child-outcome paths alongside child-behavior-to-later-spanking paths. They report that spanking at age 1 predicted aggressive behavior problems at age 2, while aggressive behavior problems at age 2 did not predict spanking at age 3. The finding is specific to these low-income toddlers and these ages; other spanking-to-aggression paths were not significant. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Supportedcites Gershoff et al., 2012 source
The Results section describes a cross-lagged model that tests whether kindergarten spanking predicts third-grade externalizing behavior while controlling for initial behavior and the reverse path from early externalizing behavior to later spanking. The Abstract reports that early spanking predicted increases in externalizing behavior, while early externalizing behavior predicted more spanking. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not matchedcites McLeod et al., 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The remaining four meta-analyses were not significantly different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only 75 studies met all four criteria and were retained for the meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Longitudinal effect sizes of the bivariate links between spanking and later child outcomes do not rule out the potential for a child elicitation effect; however, so few studies report a coefficient that controls only for initial child behavior (and not for a range of other covariates) that we are unable to meta-analyze them.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The magnitude of the mean effect size for spanking was 65% of the magnitude of the mean effect size for physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 13 statistically significant mean effect sizes ranged in size from .15 to .64.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the tests were significant, indicating that the risk of publication bias for any of our mean effect sizes is small.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Tests for Publication Bias
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 40
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“analysis of data from a national randomized controlled trial of the federal Head Start program for low income children found that parents in the program significantly reduced their spanking, which was in turn linked with decreases in child aggression over time (Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016 source
The Results report a significant reduction in spanking associated with Head Start participation. The Discussion states that reduced spanking predicted reduced child aggression over time. The paper also cautions that the indirect effect of Head Start on aggression through spanking was not statistically significant; the claim does not say that it was. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Both behaviors involve parents intentionally hitting (and hurting) children, albeit to different degrees (Gershoff, 2013)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, 2013 source
The section “Spanking Is Linked With Numerous Adverse Side Effects” states that spanking and physical abuse both involve hitting and purposefully hurting children. It says the difference is often one of degree—such as duration or force—rather than intent. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The weighted mean effect size for spanking was d = .25, while for physical abuse it was d = .38. Both were significantly different from zero and both were positive in sign”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
“Spanking in these studies was significantly associated with detrimental outcomes with an effect size d = .25, while the mean effect size for physical abuse for these studies was significant and d = .38”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The largest effect size was for physical abuse; the more children are spanked, the greater the risk that they will be physically abused by their parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In childhood, parental use of spanking was associated with low moral internalization, aggression, antisocial behavior, externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, mental health problems, negative parent–child relationships, impaired cognitive ability, low self-esteem, and risk of physical abuse from parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Three outcomes in childhood were not significantly associated with spanking in the meta-analyses: immediate defiance, child alcohol or substance abuse, and low-self regulation.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In adulthood, prior experiences of parental use of spanking were significantly associated with adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and with positive attitudes about spanking.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Three of the four adult outcomes were significantly associated with a history of spanking from parents: adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and adult support for physical punishment.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of the comparisons were nonsignificant, indicating that the effect sizes did not vary by study characteristic.”
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
“Average effect sizes also did not significantly vary based on how spanking was measured, how it was indexed, whether the raters of spanking and outcome were independent, the time period over which spanking was measured, the country of the study, or the age group of the children studied.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An important observation about the meta-analyses is that the individual studies are highly consistent: 71% of all of the effect sizes, and 99% of the significant effect sizes, indicated a significant association between parental spanking and detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Of the 111 individual effect sizes, 102 were in the direction of a detrimental outcome with 78 of these statistically significant. In contrast, nine of the effect sizes were in the direction of a beneficial outcome but only one (Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975) was statistically different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975 source
plaincorrelationaln = 111- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overall mean weighted effect size across all of the 111 study-level effect sizes was d = .33, with a 95% confidence interval of .29 to .38; this mean effect was statistically different from zero, Z = 14.84, p < .001.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spanking was significantly associated with 13 of the 17 outcomes examined. In each case, spanking was associated with a greater likelihood of detrimental child outcomes.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Thirteen of the 17 child outcomes examined were found to be significantly associated with parents’ use of spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A total of 111 unique effect sizes were derived from data representing 204,410 child measurement occasions; these studies included data from a total of 160,927 unique children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two of the studies contributed more than one effect size, yielding a total of 10 pairs of effect sizes for spanking and physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses did not find any support for the contentions that spanking is only associated with detrimental outcomes when it is combined with abusive methods or that spanking is only associated with such outcomes in methodologically weak studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While it was indeed true that the majority of studies (70%) were cross-sectional or retrospective in nature, the effect sizes for the longitudinal and experimental studies were not significantly different from the effect sizes for the cross-sectional studies (see Table 4).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The mean effect size across all studies, d = .33, was smaller than the overall mean effect size reported by Gershoff (2002), d = .40, but still statistically significant.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-analyses presented here found no evidence that spanking is associated with improved child behavior and rather found spanking to be associated with increased risk of 13 detrimental outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, both effect sizes are significant and positive, indicating that both are associated with more undesirable child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Been Confounded With Harsher Forms of Physical Punishment
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, while not a perfect solution, longitudinal bivariate coefficients are decidedly stronger methodologically than within-time coefficients.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All study-level effect sizes were calculated independently by each of the authors; for all effect sizes, agreement was achieved to at least the third decimal place.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The failure to reach significance for immediate defiance appears to result from the small n (150), while for child alcohol or substance abuse and low self-regulation the cause appears to be heterogeneity in effect sizes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Each of these four meta-analyses included a different set of articles and came to varied conclusions, namely that physical punishment is largely ineffective and harmful (Gershoff, 2002), that physical punishment is effective under certain circumstances (Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005), and that physical punishment is linked with children’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems but only modestly (F”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the second step of coding, each of these 558 potential studies was coded independently by each of the authors. Any disagreements in coding were resolved through follow-up discussion.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The finding that spanking was not linked with immediate defiance was unexpected given the opposite findings in the Gershoff (2002) meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When discrepancies occurred in effect size calculations, the discrepancy was discussed, and then each author independently recalculated the effect size. This process was repeated, if necessary, until consensus was achieved.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While this is clearly a beneficial outcome, the uniqueness of the sample limits the generalizability of this finding and may explain why this study is an outlier”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Taken together, these meta-analyses provide evidence that physical punishment is associated with negative child outcomes, particularly when the outcomes are divided into finer-grained categories (Ferguson, 2013; Gershoff, 2002) rather than when they are grouped into broad categories (Paolucci & Violato, 2004), and that harsher methods of physical punishment are more strongly associated with”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Previous Meta-Analyses of Physical Punishment and Spanking
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The only study that found a significant association with a beneficial outcome, Tennant, Detels, and Clark (1975), had a unique sample (U.S. Army soldiers stationed in West Germany in 1971 and 1972, most of whom were White [77%]), and found that soldiers who recalled being spanked were less likely to report using amphetamines or opiates.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark (1975) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The circumstances of experimentally manipulated spanking thus are likely to be unusual, leading to concern that experiments with parental spanking may suffer from a lack of external validity.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, parents’ use of spanking is not easily or ethically studied through an experimental design, as children cannot be randomly assigned to parents with varying predispositions to spank, nor can parents typically be randomly assigned to spank or not spank.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two primary concerns that have been raised about past meta-analyses are that spanking has been confounded with potentially abusive parenting behaviors in some studies and that spanking has only been linked with detrimental outcomes in methodologically weak studies (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of these studies using advanced statistical methods found evidence that the pathway is entirely one of selection or child elicitation, or that spanking predicts improvements in children’s behavior over time”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the association only indicates that milder and more severe corporal punishment are linked, and that the former may increase the risk that children will also be physically abused.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding indicates that methodologically stronger studies did not find significantly smaller effect sizes than methodologically weaker studies, lending more confidence to the findings from the main meta-analyses that include both.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“given that a correlational association is a necessary condition for a causal relationship (Shadish et al., 2001), we can conclude that the data are consistent with a conclusion that spanking is associated with undesirable outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shadish et al., 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“many researchers have argued that spanking and physical abuse are on a continuum of violence against children, and that spanking can escalate into physical abuse (Straus, 2001)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Straus, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct, and thus this shortcoming of the literature will be difficult to correct through future studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As most of the included studies were correlational or retrospective (72%), causal links between spanking and child outcomes cannot be established by these meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across study designs, countries, and age groups, spanking has been linked with detrimental outcomes for children, a fact supported by several key methodologically strong studies that isolate the ability of spanking to predict child outcomes over time.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A major concern raised about the spanking literature in general and previous meta-analyses in particular is that their reliance on cross-sectional designs may mask what are truly child-elicitation effects (Baumrind et al., 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere et al., 2004). In other words, associations between spanking and problematic behavior may reflect the fact that difficult children elicit more sp”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“most instances of substantiated physical abuse (75%), like all instances of spanking, begin as responses to children’s misbehavior (Durrant et al., 2006).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Durrant et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across all categories, methodologically stronger study designs identified the same risk for negative outcomes as did weaker study designs, suggesting that the associations between spanking and child outcomes are robust to study design.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the mean effect size for all studies from Table 2, d = .33, is closer to the mean effect size for physical abuse in Table 3 than it is to the mean effect size for spanking from these 10 select effect sizes, indicating that spanking and physical abuse have relations with child outcomes that are similar in magnitude and identical in direction.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Approximately 80% of children are spanked.
“when extrapolated to the population in which 80% of children are being spanked”
The paper relies on this without support.
Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The meta-analysis of Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) found no effect size difference between spanking and physical abuse, demonstrating that both share similar associations with detrimental child outcomes.”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Over a span of five decades, numerous cross-cultural studies, longitudinal investigations (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff et al., 2012), and large meta-analyses (Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) provide converging evidence regarding the harmful outcomes, which include depression or depressed mood (Fergusson et al., 2008), antisocial behavior (Straus et al., 1997), substance use, Su”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentz = 14.84reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Z = 14.84, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
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“Ferguson (2013) analyzed 45 studies; of these, 11 were included in the current meta-analyses.”
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Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2021) · doi:10.1002/9781119558378 · Cited by 9,799
Gershoff, E. T. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539 · Cited by 2,165 · cited 15×
“The first and most widely cited of the meta-analyses was by Gershoff (2002).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialExposure to childhood sexual and physical abuse and adjustment in early adulthood
Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2008) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.018 · Cited by 910 · cited 5×
“…outcomes 2.00 1.00 .00 1.00 2.00 Adult alcohol or substance abuse 2,596 4,796 .13 .08 .35 Baer and Corrado (1974) 93 107 .41 .13 .69 Fergusson, Boden, and Horwood (2008) 341 2,504 .29 .18 .40 Lynch et al. (2006) 576 1,640 .05 .05 .14 Tennant, Detels, and Clark (1975) 1,586 545 .13…”
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“….12 .04 Lau et al. (2010) 924 2,400 .28 .15 .41 Maguire-Jack, Gromoske, and Berger (2012) 3,870 .11 .05 .18 McKee et al. (2007) 2,582 .19 .11 .27 McLeod and Shanahan (1993) 1,733 .32 .23 .42 Child mental health problems 5,122 1,313 .53 .42 .64 Buehler and Gerard (2002) 1,401 .53 .42…”
InfluentialCommittee on the rights of the child
Vincent, G. (2009) · Docs.school Publications · Cited by 733
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 924
Duong, H. T., Sirohi, A., Baggett, K. M., & Popova, L. (2025) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107509 · Cited by 3
Zhu, Z., Li, X., & Anme, T. (2025) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107607 · Cited by 1
Özmen, M., & Atlı, A. (2025) · Toplum ve sosyal hizmet(Online)/Toplum ve sosyal hizmet · doi:10.33417/tsh.1485354 · Cited by 1
Corporal punishment in schools and community violence: a missing link?
Rehder, P. D., Rostad, W. L., Lee, F. L. F., & Ports, K. A. (2025) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108618 · Cited by 1
Punishment or Restoration? The role of group bias and harsh nurturing on children's preference
Carrillo-Forero, M., Giraldo-Huertas, J. J., Rincón‐Unigarro, C., & Nieto-Godoy, S. (2025) · Universitas Psychologica · doi:10.11144/javeriana.upsy24.gbhn · Cited by 1
“…significant negative effects on the social and psychological development of children in varied sociocultural contexts given its impact on their cognitive (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), emotional (Afifi et al., 2012), and social-behavioral (Guevara et al., 2021; Temple et al., 2018) development.”
Cuartas, J. A., Rey‐Guerra, C., & Borbón, J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0336106 · Cited by 2
“…from meta-analyses and reviews of longitudinal studies show robust associations between violent punishment and negative behavioral outcomes [49,50], there is still discussion on whether these effects may vary according to beliefs and how normative is violent punishment within a culture [51].”
dos Santos, L. M. T. D., Gonçalves, V. S. S., do Carmo, A. S., Buccini, G., & Pizato, N. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-24917-0 · Cited by 1
Have introductory psychology textbooks gotten better at representing psychological science?
Brown, J., & Ferguson, C. J. (2025) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2025.2587151 · Cited by 1
“On the other hand, in a meta-analysis of 50 years of research on spanking, Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016), found that the more children are spanked the more they are aggressive, anti-social, and defiant.”
Islam, M. S., Mondal, M. N. I., Haque, M., Parvin, S., & Ali, M. E. (2025) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/apa.70406 · Cited by 1
Chen, J., Fang, C., Vaughn, M. G., Helton, J. J., Chiang, C.-J., Kong, V., & Pu, Q. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.107895 · Cited by 1
Chen, Y., Canfield, C. F., Roby, E., Weisleder, A., Farinelli, M. N., Cates, C. B., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2026) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2026.115038 · Cited by 1
Corporal Punishment in U.S. Public Schools: A Review of State Bans
Samarah, E. M. S., Schelbe, L. A., & Klika, J. B. (2026) · Children & Schools · doi:10.1093/cs/cdag006 · Cited by 1
Atkinson, L., Khoury, J. E., Kenny, M., & Gonzalez, A. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.107945 · Cited by 1
Beyond Discipline: How Parental Practices Shape Early Child Development and Self-Regulation
Dutta, S. (2026) · American Journal of Family Therapy · doi:10.1080/01926187.2026.2638784 · Cited by 1
Nguyen, T. T. T., Luu‐Thi, H., Nguyen, D. T., et al. (2026) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.70260 · Cited by 1
Maluleke, P., Franchino-Olsen, H., Meinck, F., Silima, M., Christofides, N., Thurston, C., Maleke, K., Asghar, K., & Woollett, N. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.107992 · Cited by 1
Cárcamo-Zepeda, E., Valencia, P. D., Landa–Blanco, M., & Mejía-Sánchez, R. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.108002 · Cited by 1
Revamping Anticipatory Guidance
Gillespie, R. J. (2024) · American Academy of PediatricsItasca, IL eBooks · doi:10.1542/9781610027410-ch8 · Cited by 1
Kyei‐Gyamfi, S., Kyei‐Arthur, F., Abutima, T. K., et al. (2026) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.70133 · Cited by 1
D'Souza, A. J., Imlach, F., Wood, B., & Southey, J. (2026) · Archives of Disease in Childhood · doi:10.1136/archdischild-2026-330530 · Cited by 2
Hollingworth, K., Pells, K., Eager, S., et al. (2026) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2026.119548 · Cited by 1
Grandparenting in Early Childhood: Educational Support Needs for Caregiving Grandparents
BAŞ, M. K., & Tuğrul, B. (2026) · Journal of Child Development and Education · doi:10.66497/jocde.1834693 · Cited by 1
Harrison, M. J. (2017) · Cited by 1
Role of the Family in Child Protection
Deb, S. (2018) · SpringerBriefs in well-being and quality of life research · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-7452-3_3 · Cited by 1
Lanza, H. I., Pittman, P. S., & Hser, Y. (2018) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x18815274 · Cited by 1
“In addition to the already established positive effects of reducing physical discipline (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Turner & Muller, 2004), parenting efforts aimed at promoting more adaptive discipline strategies may have an added benefit of specifically improving psychosocial adjustment among…”
BackgroundMental Health Issues: Child Physical Abuse, Neglect, and Emotional Abuse
Valles, N., Harris, T. B., & SARGENT, J. A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-00635-8_18 · Cited by 3
Clément, M., Gagné, M., Dufour, S., et al. (2019) · Paediatrics & Child Health · doi:10.1093/pch/pxz060 · Cited by 1
“En outre, de plus en plus d’études montrent que cette pratique disciplinaire entraîne des conséquences néfastes pour le développement de l’enfant, telles que l’agressivité et les troubles de la conduite (5,6), en plus des risques d’escalade vers l’abus physique (3).”
BackgroundViolence and Maltreatment in Intimate Relationships: A Family Science Analysis
Crossman, K. A., & Roach, A. L. (2019) · Journal of Family Theory & Review · doi:10.1111/jftr.12340 · Cited by 1
Physical Punishment of Children in Urban African American Neighborhoods
Friedson, M. S. (2020) · International Journal on Child Maltreatment Research Policy and Practice · doi:10.1007/s42448-020-00062-6 · Cited by 1
Koukouli, S., & Kalaitzaki, A. E. (2021) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/vv-d-19-00005 · Cited by 1
Intergeracionalidade no Contexto das Práticas Educativas de Mães de Crianças Pré-Escolares
Porta, D. D., Wottrich, S. H., & Siqueira, A. C. (2021) · Psicologia Ciência e Profissão · doi:10.1590/1982-3703003205488 · Cited by 1
Improving the Experiences of Mothers Struggling with Their Children’s Misbehavior
Kurt, Ş. H., Sığırtmaç, A. D., & Özsezer, M. (2021) · Cukurova University Faculty of Education Journal · doi:10.14812/cufej.947175 · Cited by 1
Lam, C. M., Ho, G. W. K., & Bressington, D. T. (2022) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.2756 · Cited by 1
La violence éducative dans l’intimité familiale
Delanoë, D. (2019) · Presses Universitaires de France eBooks · doi:10.3917/puf.flist.2019.01.0029 · Cited by 1
Improving the Experiences of Mothers Struggling with Their Children’s Misbehavior
Hülya, K. U. R. T., Sığırtmaç, A. D., & Özsezer, M. S. B. (2021) · Cukurova University Faculty of Education Journal · doi:10.14812/cuefd.947175 · Cited by 1
Corporal Punishment in Schools, “Still Legal?”
Gill, B. I. (2022) · Advances in educational marketing, administration, and leadership book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-3359-1.ch004 · Cited by 1
Martoccio, T. L., Berlin, L. J., & Harden, B. J. (2022) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.22019 · Cited by 1
Grassetti, S. N., Tennity, C. L., Charles, N. E., Turner, E. A., & Barry, C. T. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03840-2 · Cited by 1
“Ineffec - tive parenting practices are associated with externalizing behavior problems, including elevated aggression in youth and more antisocial behavior among both youth and adults who have been subjected to corporal punishment as children (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016 ).”
The Bahamian Justification for Using Corporal Punishment Within the Home: A Christian Habit?
Fielding, W. J., & Ballance, V. C. F. (2022) · International Journal of Bahamian Studies · doi:10.15362/ijbs.v28i0.449 · Cited by 1
“…evidence from within and outside of the country about the potential and actual negative long-term effects of corporal punishment (Gershoff, 2010; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Fielding et al., 2016), there is still support for the untestable statement, “I got beat as a child and I turned out…”
BackgroundLe punizioni corporali nei confronti dei bambini in Italia: alcune note
Polini, B. (2022) · SOCIOLOGIA DEL DIRITTO · doi:10.3280/sd2022-002007 · Cited by 1
The Effect of Children's Safety on Parenting Strategy
Harris, J. M. (2023) · The Review of Black Political Economy · doi:10.1177/00346446231170895 · Cited by 1
“Harsh discipline is associated with lower school performance (Dornbusch et al., 1987; Steinberg et al., 1992), less “ moral internalization ” (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Martínez & García, 2007), lower self-esteem (Bender et al., 2007) and lower earnings (Dornbusch et al., 1987).”
BackgroundFrança, T., da Silva, A. C. P., Costa, C., & Patias, N. D. (2023) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-023-00297-5 · Cited by 1
“This is a worrying reality, as its harmfulness has already been proven in several studies (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Pace et al., 2019; Saunders, 2019).”
InfluentialPercepções e Vivências de Psicólogos/as sobre a Punição Física em Crianças
França, T., Hohendorff, J. V., da Silva, A. C. P., & Costa, C. (2023) · Estudos e Pesquisas em Psicologia · doi:10.12957/epp.2023.75311 · Cited by 1
Children’s Lives Are Different Today: More Reasons for Building a Children’s Human Rights Framework
Vissing, Y. (2023) · Clinical sociology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-30848-2_7 · Cited by 1
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Parental Punishment: Don’t Throw Out the Baby with the Bathwater
Larzelere, R. E., Reitman, D. S., Ortiz, C., et al. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-29148-7_21 · Cited by 1
Snyder-Fickler, E., Alban, C., Liu, Y., Rohrs, R., Blessing, L., Longenecker, T. C., Sotolongo, E. M., Byrd, J., Golonka, M. M., Evans, K. E., et al. (2023) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107198 · Cited by 1
K problematice tělesných trestů ve vývoji rodinné výchovy a školního vzdělávání
Rýdl, K., & Zitková, H. (2024) · Pedagogika · doi:10.14712/23362189.2023.2701 · Cited by 1
“Greven, 1990; Fer-guson, 2013; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Heilmann et al., 2021; Kang, 2022; srov.”
Hososaka, Y., Kayashima, K., Goetz, J. T., & Rooksby, M. (2024) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-023-02707-9 · Cited by 1
Pearlman, J., Morgan, H., Opondo, C., Amollo, M., Cuartas, J. A., & Bhatia, A. (2024) · Journal of Global Health · doi:10.7189/jogh.14.04232 · Cited by 1
Gupta, M., & Gupta, N. (2025) · Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.2174/0122106766336153241216081316 · Cited by 1
Mushy, S. E., Lukumay, G. G., Massae, A. F., Mkoka, D. A., Rohloff, C. T., Kohli, N., Mgopa, L. R., Mwakawanga, D. L., Mkonyi, E., Ross, M. W., et al. (2025) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2025.2450404 · Cited by 1
“There are significant and well-established behavioral and health effects for child physical, sexual, and emotional abuse (Casanueva et al., 2012; CDC, 2018; Chen et al., 2010; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) and exposure to domestic violence (Boudewyn & Liem, 1995).”
Siu, G., Byekwaso, C. N., Ikwara, E. A., Sekiwunga, R., Bates, R., & Wight, D. (2025) · Child Protection and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.chipro.2025.100115 · Cited by 1
Maternal drinking, stress and use of aggressive parenting over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic
Wolf, J. P., & Freisthler, B. (2025) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agaf020 · Cited by 1
“Par-ents who use harsh parenting are more likely to engage in Price Wolf and Freisthler behaviors that are considered physically abusive (Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016).”
The Relation Between College Education and Beliefs about Parent Discipline
Tompkins, V. (2025) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-025-09529-7 · Cited by 1
“Harsh physical punishment predicts internalizing and externalizing behaviors, such as aggression or hyperactivity, even into adulthood (see Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016 for a meta-analysis).”
Acuña-Duarte, T. L., & González, J. A. C. (2025) · Salud Ciencia y Tecnología · doi:10.56294/saludcyt20252689 · Cited by 1
IV. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF CHILDREN’S AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIORS AFTER THE BIRTH OF A SIBLING
Volling, B. L., Gonzalez, R., Yu, T., & Oh, W. (2017) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12310 · Cited by 2
VIII. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF CHILDREN’S WITHDRAWAL AFTER THE BIRTH OF A SIBLING
Oh, W., Song, J., Gonzalez, R., Volling, B. L., & Yu, T. (2017) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12314 · Cited by 2
A Qualitative Look at Relationships and Social Support Within Criminogenic Environments
Bernhardt, M. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/12574786 · Cited by 1
Young Adults’ Attitudes About Corporal Punishment: Implications for Mental Health Counseling
Smith, J. L., & Kalkbrenner, M. T. (2020) · Journal of Mental Health Counseling · doi:10.17744/mehc.42.3.05 · Cited by 2
V. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF CHILDREN’S ATTENTION PROBLEMS AFTER THE BIRTH OF A SIBLING
Song, J., Oh, W., Gonzalez, R., Volling, B. L., & Yu, T. (2017) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12311 · Cited by 1
Corporal punishment and affect dysregulation in the perental role
Lukek, S. P. (2019) · doi:10.15633/9788374387637.12 · Cited by 1
MODERN PARENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF DEMANDS, ENCOURAGEMENT, AND PUNISHMENT AS COMPONENTS OF CHILD REARING
Astafiev, K. N. A. V. P., & Safonov, M. V. (2020) · Вестник Красноярского государственного педагогического университета им. В.П. Астафьева · doi:10.25146/1995-0861-2020-53-3-231 · Cited by 1
Recognizing and Responding to the Spiritual Impact of Child Abuse
Vieth, V. I., & Singer, P. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62122-7_275-1 · Cited by 1
Le guide anticipatorie nell'ambulatorio del pediatra
Panza, C. (2021) · Medico e Bambino · doi:10.53126/meb40365 · Cited by 1
Siegler, R. S., Saffran, J. R., Gershoff, E. T., & Eisenberg, N. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-62772-3_12 · Cited by 1
Self-citationHow to promote ‘discipline without tough love’ during pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial
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Freisthler, B., & Wolf, J. P. (2022) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109716 · Cited by 1
Programas Parentais para Prevenção de Maus-tratos Infantis: Análise de Revisões Sistemáticas
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Measuring Early Childhood Educators' Self-Efficacy for Mandatory Reporting of Child Maltreatment
Ayling, N. J. (2019) · Queensland University of Technology · doi:10.5204/thesis.eprints.130708 · Cited by 1
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Dog-directed parenting styles : The role of parenting styles in the owner-dog relationship
van Herwijnen, I. R. (2020) · doi:10.18174/521648 · Cited by 1
Examining adverse childhood experiences in a First Nations treatment-seeking population
Toombs, E. (2021) · Cited by 1
Development in the Midst of Crisis
Novick, K. K. (2021) · Psychoanalytic Inquiry · doi:10.1080/07351690.2021.1944786 · Cited by 1
“The USA has no federal law prohibiting physical punishment; there are still 19 states that permit physical punishment in schools; 50% of families use physical punishment to discipline children (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundThe Effects of Spanking on Psychosocial Outcomes: Revisiting Genetic and Environmental CovariationPreprint
Barbaro, N., Connolly, E. J., Sogge, M., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zhgme · Cited by 1
The Time Has Come to Repeal Section 43 of the Criminal Code
Carmel, J., & Kutcher, S. (2023) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/07067437231181831 · Cited by 1
“6 Following these critics, subsequent studies aimed to not only determine if there was a mere association between CP and pediatric behavioral problems, but to identify if there was a causal link between the two.”
BackgroundMethodParenting practices and styles
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Contribution to the discussion on the banning of corporal punishment of children
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Punição física severa em jovens com e sem conflito com a lei
Paiva, T. T., ́Pimentel, C. E., Nascimento, T. G., et al. (2016) · Revista Ciência & Polícia · doi:10.59633/2316-8765.2016.39
Violence in the conflicts between parents and children
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Tools for Treating Behavior Problems in Young Latino Children
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Parenting perceptions among college students: A qualitative examination
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“In spite of the empirical findings on the negative effects of physical and aggressive forms of discipline (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Straus, Sugarman, & Giles-Sims, 1997), this parenting tactic remains a widely used strategy (Benjet & Kazdin, 2003; Zolotor et al., 2011).”
BackgroundKörperstrafen als moralisches Übel
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„Tyłek nie szklanka” – o popularności kar cielesnych w wychowaniu
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Parental physical punishment : child outcomes and attitudes
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Page, T. F., & Yang, M. (2019) · Child & Youth Services · doi:10.1080/0145935x.2019.1605895
“Spanking has specifically been identified in nationally representative studies as having a causal influence in children’s anti-social behavior (Strauss, Sugarman, & Giles-Sims, 1997) and other long-term detrimental outcomes (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundSind Kleinkinder in den ersten 3 Lebensjahren in Kitas gut aufgehoben?
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General Processes of Development
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Family Psychology
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 453-469
- ISSN
- 0893-3200 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1293
- PMC
- PMC7992110
- OpenAlex
- W2325391559
- Semantic Scholar
- 0d03a2e9f085f0a268b4c0a52f5ac31c17a3e5f3
- Cited by
- 931
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 97 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 18
- FWCI
- 125.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Family Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD042849)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Keywords
- spanking, corporal punishment, child outcomes, physical abuse, effect size, child development
- MeSH terms
- Aggression, Child, Child Abuse, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Humans, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Punishment, Research Design, Parenting
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