The Cultural Socialization Scale: Assessing family and peer socialization toward heritage and mainstream cultures.
Open accessAbstract
In a culturally diverse society, youth learn about multiple cultures from a variety of sources, yet the existing assessment of cultural socialization has been limited to parents' efforts to teach youth about their heritage culture. The current study adapted and extended an existing cultural socialization measure (Umaña-Taylor & Fine, 2004) to assess 4 types of socialization practices encountered specifically during adolescence: cultural socialization by families and peers toward both one's heritage culture and the mainstream culture. In a pilot study, we developed the Cultural Socialization Scale based on retrospective reports from 208 young adults, maximizing young adults' ability to reason and reflect their adolescent experiences with various socialization practices. In the primary study, we examined the psychometric properties of the scale using reports from 252 adolescents. Cultural socialization occurred from both socialization agents toward both cultures. Our Cultural Socialization Scale demonstrated stable factor structures and high reliabilities. We observed strong factorial invariance across the 4 subscales (6 items). Multiple indicators multiple causes models also demonstrated invariance for each subscale across adolescents' demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, race/ethnicity, nativity, socioeconomic status, language of assessment). The implications of the Cultural Socialization Scale are discussed.
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The four cultural socialization subscales capture distinct dimensions and have a stable factor structure across gender, race/ethnicity, nativity, socioemotional status, and language of assessment.
“Our prior work showed that the four subscales capture distinct dimensions of cultural socialization, and all the subscales demonstrated stable factor structure across gender, race/ethnicity, nativity, socioemotional status, and language of assessment (Y. Wang et al., 2015).”
From Cultural Socialization Across Contexts: Family–Peer Congruence and Adolescent Well-Being (2016) · cites this paper as Y. Wang et al., 2015
The Results (Factor Structure and Measurement Equivalence; page unavailable) identify four subscales, each with a well-fitting one-factor model, and report measurement invariance across most groups tested. The Discussion (page unavailable) specifies socioeconomic status, not socioemotional status, and notes a few non-invariant items across gender; the claim overstates stability across all listed groups. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStrong factorial invariance across the subscales was established in the current sample, permitting mean comparisons across the four cultural socialization types.
“We were also able to establish strong factorial invariance across the subscales using the current sample (Y. Wang et al., 2015), enabling mean comparisons across the four types of cultural socialization.”
From Cultural Socialization Across Contexts: Family–Peer Congruence and Adolescent Well-Being (2016) · cites this paper as Y. Wang et al., 2015
In Results (Measurement equivalence of the cultural socialization scale), the paper reports that strong invariance across the four subscales did not fit adequately for the original scale. It reports strong invariance—and permits mean comparisons across socialization agents and cultures—only after dropping two items to form a revised six-item scale. The claim omits that restriction; its reference to the citing authors’ current sample is their own finding, not one established by this source. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe authors' prior mixed-methods study found that parents actively emphasize learning mainstream American culture, teach its values and practices, and implicitly socialize mainstream culture through events and activities.
“Our own work using a mixed-methods approach demonstrated that parents actively stress the importance of learning about the mainstream American culture, teach children about the values and practices of the mainstream culture, and implicitly practice mainstream cultural socialization by involving adolescents in events and activities that represent the mainstream culture (Y. Wang, Benner, & Kim, 2015”
From Cultural Socialization Across Contexts: Family–Peer Congruence and Adolescent Well-Being (2016) · cites this paper as Y. Wang, Benner, & Kim, 2015
Peers endorse heritage and mainstream socialization practices similar to those of families.
“Our recent work demonstrated that peers endorse similar heritage and mainstream socialization practices as families, including talking to youth about the importance of learning the heritage and mainstream American culture, encouraging youth to hang out with people from one’s own or other racial/ethnic groups, and attending concerts by artists from their heritage or the mainstream American groups (”
From Cultural Socialization Across Contexts: Family–Peer Congruence and Adolescent Well-Being (2016) · cites this paper as Y. Wang et al., 2015
The cultural socialization measure showed good reliability and validity.
“The cultural socialization measure demonstrated good reliability and validity.”
From Cultural Socialization Across Contexts: Family–Peer Congruence and Adolescent Well-Being (2016) · cites this paper as Y. Wang et al., 2015
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“Specific examples of covert socialization practices include preparing food of one's heritage culture and attending festivals, concerts, plays and other events that represent one's heritage culture (Hughes & Chen, 1997; Umaña-Taylor & Fine, 2004).”
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“Additionally, although studies show few racial/ethnic differences in parents' heritage cultural socialization (Hughes, 2003; Liu & Lau, 2013), African American youth tend to receive messages about the mainstream culture more frequently than do Latino youth (Hughes, 2003).”
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“…empirical work suggests that young adults engaged in more frequent exploration activities of their heritage culture with families than with friends (Kiang & Fuligni, 2008) and that parents emphasized heritage values (e.g., family obligation), whereas peers emphasized mainstream American values…”
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ResultThe Comprehensive Race Socialization Inventory
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“…frequent exploration activities of their heritage culture with families than with friends (Kiang & Fuligni, 2008) and that parents emphasized heritage values (e.g., family obligation), whereas peers emphasized mainstream American values (e.g., being popular, fashionable, and social; Qin, 2009).”
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“For example, studies on family cultural socialization showed that older adolescents received more frequent cultural socialization messages than their younger counterparts (Fatimilehin, 1999; McHale, et al., 2006).”
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“This item was a meaningful component of the larger socialization construct assessed in the present study; the practice of preparing food of a specific culture has also been identified as a feature of cultural socialization by others' work (e.g., Moua & Lamborn, 2010).”
MethodExamining cultural socialization within African American and European American households.
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“Studies documenting parents' efforts in promoting their children's adaption to the mainstream culture show that these efforts take on similar forms as parents' heritage cultural socialization: African American, Latino, and Asian American parents reported teaching children how to interact with other racial/ethnic group…”
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“Data were drawn from a larger study of adolescents’ development in context (the Schools, Peers, and Adolescent Development Project; Project SPAD) conducted with 8th grade students at two middle schools in the South.”
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“…children spend increasing amounts of time with their peers throughout adolescence (Brown and Larson 2009), and peers become one of the most important socialisation agents for maintaining and learning about culture through cultural socialisation (Wang, Benner, and Kim 2015; Wang and Benner 2016).”
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“Notably, peer socialization might orient youth toward both the heritage and destination cultures (Wang et al., 2015).”
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“Perhaps youth who recognize their mothers are not willing to talk about race are seeking out information from other sources such as schools (Byrd 2017; Saleem & Byrd 2021) or peers (Ahn et al., 2021; Wang & Benner, 2016; Wang et al., 2015).”
BackgroundAfrican American Financial Socialization
Hudson, C. R., Young, J. H., Anong, S. T., Hudson, E., & Davis, E. L. (2017) · The Review of Black Political Economy · doi:10.1007/s12114-017-9258-9 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Cultural Socialization is the process throughwhich young people learn about their cultural heritage and their identity in their culturally diverse environments (Baker 2014; Yijie et al. 2015).”
Background“I disagreed with a lot of values”: Exploring Black immigrant agency in ethnic-racial socialization
Thelamour, B., & George Mwangi, C. A. (2021) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.09.002 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Peer ethnic/racial socialization in adolescence: Current knowledge and future directions
Wang, Y., & Lin, S. L.-C. (2023) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.2409 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationCrocetti, E., Karataş, S., Branje, S., Bobba, B., & Rubini, M. (2023) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-023-01870-y · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…both heritage and destination cultures because the group of friends is often composed of mutually chosen and potentially more diverse peers, which enables youth to engage in more frequent and intensive socialization experiences towards both cultures (Vietze et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015).”
BackgroundWang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Wadsworth, H. E. (2023) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13937 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationNieri, T. A., Yoo, M., & Tam, C. (2024) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.13185 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Hendarto, K., Anastasia, N., & Basana, S. R. (2021) · Petra International Journal of Business Studies · doi:10.9744/ijbs.4.1.11-22 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Albuja, A. F., West, A. L., & Gaither, S. E. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009202695 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Similarly, Multicultural adolescents of various backgrounds reported receiving cultural socialization to both their heritage culture and the mainstream culture (Wang et al., 2015).”
BackgroundKaiser, M. J., Moffitt, U., Hagelskamp, C., & Jugert, P. (2023) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2023.2272466 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“…own group’s customs and history and mainstream socialization teaches about dealing with the mainstream (Farago et al., 2019; Loyd & Gaither, 2018; Wang et al., 2015), white normativity (Harlap & Riese, 2021; Lewis, 2004) leads white parents to primarily convey messages to their children about…”
Toro, J. D., & Wang, M. (2022) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312221132533 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Each day, we measured cultural socialization from parents and schools using aggregate scores from an adapted version of the wellvalidated Cultural Socialization Scale (Y. Wang et al., 2015; see the online supplemental materials for validity assessments).”
MethodComparing factors affecting self-disclosure behavior between German and South Korean SNS users
Seo, D., Gharibdoust, S., & Mandl, T. (2022) · Telematics and informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2022.101904 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hair Messages: A Context for Exploring Racial Socialization Among African American Males
Smith, A. M., Humphries, M. L., Mbilishaka, A., & Auguste, E. E. (2023) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984231191847 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…psychosocial functioning, self-esteem, and identity development (Anderson & Stevenson, 2019; Harris-Britt et al., 2007; Hughes et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2015), interrogating and interpreting hair messages through a lens of racial socialization can provide fresh insights into the…”
BackgroundLai, A. H. Y., Lam, J. K. H., Yao, H. Y., Tsui, E. Y. L., & Leung, C. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1275367 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Gharaei, N., Fleischmann, F., & Phalet, K. (2024) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-024-02036-0 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“National membership represents a psychologically signi fi cant common identity not only for non-immigrant majority but also for immigrant-origin minority adolescents (Wang et al., 2015).”
BackgroundWang, Y., Benner, A. D., & Kim, S. Y. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-12228-7_19 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citation“It’s the Best of Both Worlds!”: Investigating Bicultural Stress in Adult Bicultural Canadians
Tran, C., Lafreniere, K. D., Kuo, B. C. H., & Edmunds, K. (2024) · Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies · doi:10.29333/ejecs/1870 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Aral, T., Juang, L. P., Schwarzenthal, M., Schachner, M. K., & Adams, B. G. (2024) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316241251401 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“1 Ethnic-racial socialization occurs in various social contexts, such as families, schools, peer groups, neighborhoods, and the internet (Byrd & Ahn, 2020; Wang et al., 2015).”
Karataş, S. (2024) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2024.2433754 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Daily interactions with peers, whether with same-ethnic or cross-ethnic friends, involve socialization practices towards both heritage and destination cultures, such as discussing both cultural aspects (Wang et al., 2015).”
Child viewers’ engagement with social media influencers: Exercising socialisation-driven agency
de Almeida, J. O., Lugosi, P., & Quinton, S. (2025) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2025.115590 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Lai, A. H. Y., & Teyra, C. (2022) · The British Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcac202 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Galán, C. A., Lee, Y.-R., Satinsky, E., Santana, A. M., & Wang, M.-T. (2024) · Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2024.10.014 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Development of the racial and ethnic discrimination stress model
Wilkins‐Clark, R. E., Gray, C. N., & Ferraro, A. J. (2024) · Journal of Family Theory & Review · doi:10.1111/jftr.12550 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ethnic–Racial Socialization Measures for Parents of Migrant and Nonmigrant Descent in Germany
Juang, L. P., Aral, T., & Schwarzenthal, M. (2025) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000589 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wang, Y., Huang, Q., Lin, S. L.-C., Chen, M., & Zhang, Y. (2023) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14017 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationvan Veen, D., Emmen, R. A. G., & Mesman, J. (2025) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.70045 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-Disclosure or Disclosing Personal Information
Maíz-Arévalo, C. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-52931-3_2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aral, T., Juang, L. P., Schwarzenthal, M., Schachner, M. K., & Adams, B. G. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/3snjc · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cultural Socialization and Ethnic Consciousness
Amin, S. N. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-2898-5_3
Puente del AVE en Osera del Ebro: rigor y belleza
Búrdalo, S. (2004) · Revista del Ministerio de Fomento
White German parents' racial-ethnic socialization in an eastern German cityPreprint
Kaiser, M. J., Moffitt, U., Hagelskamp, C., & Jugert, P. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/87k62
Cultural Socialization and Ethnic Consciousness
Amin, S. N. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-0242-8_3-1
“…of how ethnic consciousness is fostered in the individual has focused on the role of the family (see review by Hughes et al. 2006) or peers (Wang et al. 2015) and has identified four key sets of practices, which taken together can be understood as constituting ethnic socialization:…”
BackgroundHammonds, D. S., Horne, J. V., Rothschild, A., Brown, S., Schauman, M., & Rosenthal, R. L. (2023) · Open Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.4236/jss.2023.119030
Promoting Family-School Congruence in Ethnic-Racial Socialization: An Integrated Conceptual Model
Luo, H. (2024) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000541161
“In addition to these categories, mainstream cultural socialization – teaching norms and values of the mainstream culture – is also notable (Wang et al., 2015).”
Transracial Adoption Among Asian Youth: Transitioning Through an Integrative Identity
Cheung, M., Minor, K., Adams, E. M., & Park, H. A. (2025) · Adolescents · doi:10.3390/adolescents5040065
Thelamour, B., Daikpor, I., & Marquez, A. (2026) · Journal of Black Studies · doi:10.1177/00219347261417599
“Wang et al. (2015) conceptualize peer cultural socialization as can encouraging socialization in overt (e.g., talking and teaching about race and history) and covert (e.g., celebrating holidays and adding racially and culturally relevant artifacts to one’s space) ways.”
Noe, Y., Moon, H., Moon, J., & Lee, W. S. (2026) · Journal of Leisure Research · doi:10.1080/00222216.2026.2648308
Yao, S., Khir, A. M., Ma’rof, A. A., & Jaafar, W. M. W. (2026) · Multidisciplinary Reviews · doi:10.31893/multirev.2026509
Ethnic and Racial Discrimination during Adolescence
Benner, A. D., Coulter, K. M., León, A., & Stout, G. A. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009351478.018
Self-citationEthnic racial socialization within and across black immigrant and nonimmigrant families
Karbeah, J., Abshir, I. M., Hasham, I., Augustin, D., Ross, R., Al, E., Ongeri, C., & Aman, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2026.1877193
“Cultural socialization refers to how parents teach their children about racial and ethnic group membership and can include sharing historical narratives, speaking their native language at home, or engaging in cultural practices (33).”
- Authors
- Wang, Y., Benner, A. D., & Kim, S. Y.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Assessment
- Published
- 2015-12
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1452-1462
- ISSN
- 1040-3590 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-134X
- PMC
- PMC4641843
- OpenAlex
- W1626080033
- Cited by
- 51
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 4 · 2019: 6 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 4.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Assessment (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- William T. Grant Foundation
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
- University of Texas at Austin (R24 HD42849)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Keywords
- cultural socialization, heritage culture, dominant culture, family socialization, peer socialization, adolescents, scale development, psychometric properties, measurement invariance, multiple indicators multiple causes model, cultural diversity, heritage language learners
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Peer Group, Pilot Projects, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Retrospective Studies, Socialization, Cultural Diversity, Young Adult
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