Plasma concentrations and intakes of amino acids in male meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans: a cross-sectional analysis in the EPIC-Oxford cohort
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: We aimed to investigate the differences in plasma concentrations and in intakes of amino acids between male meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans in the Oxford arm of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. SUBJECTS/METHODS: This cross-sectional analysis included 392 men, aged 30-49 years. Plasma amino acid concentrations were measured with a targeted metabolomic approach using mass spectrometry, and dietary intake was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. Differences between diet groups in mean plasma concentrations and intakes of amino acids were examined using analysis of variance, controlling for potential confounding factors and multiple testing. RESULTS: In plasma, concentrations of 6 out of 21 amino acids varied significantly by diet group, with differences of -13% to +16% between meat-eaters and vegans. Concentrations of methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine were highest in fish-eaters and vegetarians, followed by meat-eaters, and lowest in vegans. A broadly similar pattern was seen for lysine, whereas alanine concentration was highest in fish-eaters and lowest in meat-eaters. For glycine, vegans had the highest concentration and meat-eaters the lowest. Intakes of all 18 dietary amino acids differed by diet group; for the majority of these, intake was highest in meat-eaters followed by fish-eaters, then vegetarians and lowest in vegans (up to 47% lower than in meat-eaters). CONCLUSIONS: Men belonging to different habitual diet groups have significantly different plasma concentrations of lysine, methionine, tryptophan, alanine, glycine and tyrosine. However, the differences in plasma concentrations were less marked than and did not necessarily mirror those seen for amino acid intakes.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In 392 British men aged 30–49 from EPIC-Oxford, plasma concentrations of 6 of 21 amino acids differed significantly by habitual diet group, but these differences were smaller than and did not closely mirror dietary amino acid intakes. Intakes of all 18 measured dietary amino acids differed by diet group, generally highest in meat-eaters and lowest in vegans.
Key findings
- Plasma concentrations of lysine, methionine, tryptophan, alanine, glycine and tyrosine varied significantly by diet group after multiple-testing correction, with differences of −13% to +16% between meat-eaters and vegans.
- Methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine were highest in fish-eaters and vegetarians, followed by meat-eaters, and lowest in vegans; lysine showed a broadly similar pattern, alanine was highest in fish-eaters and lowest in meat-eaters, and glycine was highest in vegans and lowest in meat-eaters (vegans 16% higher than meat-eaters).
- Intakes of all 18 dietary amino acids differed by diet group (P<0.0001 for all); for most, intake was highest in meat-eaters, then fish-eaters, then vegetarians, and lowest in vegans, with lysine and methionine intakes in vegans at 56% and 53% of those in meat-eaters, respectively.
- Plasma concentrations and dietary intakes of amino acids were not strongly correlated, although significant positive correlations were found for leucine, lysine, methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine (r≤0.21).
Methods
- Cross-sectional analysis within EPIC-Oxford including 392 men aged 30–49 years, with 98 participants in each diet group: meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans.
- Plasma amino acid concentrations were measured with a targeted metabolomic assay (BIOCRATES AbsoluteIDQ p180 Kit, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry) quantifying 21 amino acids; dietary intake was assessed with a validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, and 18 amino acid intakes were estimated using the USDA National Nutrient Database.
- Differences between diet groups in mean plasma concentrations and intakes were tested using analysis of variance, adjusted for age, BMI, smoking status and alcohol intake; plasma models additionally adjusted for time since last food/drink and time between blood collection and processing, intake models adjusted for energy intake, and results were interpreted after Bonferroni correction for multiple testing.
Limitations
- Stated: plasma amino acid measurements could be affected by pre-analytic conditions such as thaw–freeze cycles, and some values were unavailable because of detector signal saturation (e.g., phenylalanine n=93, proline n=45, lysine n=11); the authors note thaw–freeze cycles were independent of diet group and most amino acids are stable over two cycles.
- Stated: FFQ-based amino acid intakes may be underestimated as more animal foods are omitted, may miss some plant foods or use non-representative portion sizes, and validation showed protein intake was particularly difficult to estimate; matching UK foods to a US nutrient database may also introduce differences in amino acid content.
- Stated/evident: some correlation analyses had lower power because diet groups with zero intake were excluded; the cross-sectional design and the sample of British men aged 30–49 in EPIC-Oxford limit causal inference and generalizability to other populations.
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Claims the paper makes
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- Findingown data
No differences between diet groups were observed for the four types of animal products where comparison was possible (fish, dairy, egg and mixed animal products).
“However, no differences between diet groups were observed for the four types of animal products where comparison was possible (fish, dairy, egg and mixed animal products).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Findingown data
The six plasma amino acids whose concentrations varied significantly by diet group were lysine, methionine, tryptophan, alanine, glycine and tyrosine.
“This analysis showed that plasma concentrations of six amino acids, namely lysine, methionine, tryptophan, alanine, glycine and tyrosine, differed by habitual diet group.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions: · plain
“Men belonging to different habitual diet groups have significantly different plasma concentrations of lysine, methionine, tryptophan, alanine, glycine and tyrosine.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Also stated in: § Conclusions: · plain
- Findingown data
Mean plasma glycine concentration in vegans was 16% higher than in meat-eaters.
“The largest difference was seen for glycine; mean concentration in vegans was 16% higher than in meat-eaters, who had the lowest concentration, with intermediate concentrations for fish-eaters and vegetarians.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
For the majority of the 18 amino acids, intake was highest in meat-eaters followed by fish-eaters, then vegetarians and lowest in vegans.
“Intakes of all 18 dietary amino acids differed by diet group; for the majority of these, intake was highest in meat-eaters followed by fish-eaters, then vegetarians and lowest in vegans (up to 47% lower than in meat-eaters).”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Meat-eaters had the highest intakes, followed by fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans, except for arginine, aspartate, glycine and proline.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
Intakes of all 18 dietary amino acids differed by diet group (P<0.0001 for all).
“Estimated mean intakes of all 18 amino acids varied by diet group (P<0.0001 for all; Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
The strongest positive correlations were observed between the essential amino acids (r≤0.91).
“The strongest positive correlations were observed between the essential amino acids (r⩽0.91).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
In plasma, concentrations of 6 out of 21 amino acids varied significantly by diet group after allowance for multiple testing.
“In plasma, concentrations of 6 out of 21 amino acids varied significantly by diet group, with differences of −13% to +16% between meat-eaters and vegans.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“The concentrations of 6 of the 21 plasma amino acids varied significantly by diet group after allowing for multiple testing (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
Significant positive correlations were found between intakes and plasma concentrations for leucine, lysine, methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine (r≤0.21), after allowing for multiple testing.
“However, significant positive correlations were found for leucine, lysine, methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine (r⩽0.21), after allowing for multiple testing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
Concentrations of some plasma amino acids were correlated with intake of protein from plant products after allowing for multiple testing.
“Concentrations of some plasma amino acids were correlated with intake of protein from plant products, after allowing for multiple testing (Supplementary Table 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
For soya products, inverse correlations were seen with valine, lysine, methionine and tyrosine.
“For soya products, inverse correlations were seen with valine, lysine, methionine and tyrosine.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
Glycine was positively correlated with protein from soya products.
“In contrast, glycine was positively correlated with protein from soya products.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
There were no statistically significant correlations between plasma amino acids and protein from animal food types after allowing for multiple testing.
“There were no statistically significant correlations between plasma amino acids and protein from animal food types, after allowing for multiple testing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
Intakes and plasma concentrations of amino acids were not strongly correlated.
“Intakes and plasma concentrations of amino acids were not strongly correlated (Table 4).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
Plasma concentrations of methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine were highest in fish-eaters and vegetarians, followed by meat-eaters, and lowest in vegans.
“Concentrations of methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine were highest in fish-eaters and vegetarians, followed by meat-eaters, and lowest in vegans.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“For lysine, methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine fish-eaters and vegetarians generally had the highest concentrations, followed by meat-eaters, whereas vegans had the lowest concentrations for all four.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
Differences in plasma amino acid concentrations between meat-eaters and vegans ranged from −13% to +16%.
“In plasma, concentrations of 6 out of 21 amino acids varied significantly by diet group, with differences of −13% to +16% between meat-eaters and vegans.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Findingown data
Differences between diet groups in plasma concentrations of leucine, valine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, citrulline and ornithine were not statistically significant after correction for multiple testing.
“Differences between diet groups in concentrations of leucine, valine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, citrulline and ornithine were not statistically significant after correction for multiple testing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Study design and conductcitation
The FFQ used to assess diet was validated.
“At recruitment, participants completed a validated semi-quantitative FFQ,12, 13 with additional questions on smoking status, height and weight.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Study design and conductreasoning
The study had more than 80% power to detect a 10% difference in mean amino acid concentration (for example lysine) between diet groups.
“With 98 participants in each diet group, the study had more than 80% power to detect a 10% difference in mean amino acid concentration (for example lysine) between diet groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Most amino acids have been found to be stable during two thaw-freeze cycles.
“However, most amino acids have been found to be stable during two thaw–freeze cycles,33 and in the current study, the number of thaw–freeze cycles was independent of diet group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [33] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductown data
Further adjusting for physical activity did not materially change the findings for plasma concentrations.
“Further adjusting for physical activity did not materially change the findings (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Pre-analytical factors are unlikely to explain the findings.
“Pre-analytical factors are therefore unlikely to explain our findings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Other pre-analytical conditions, which the study did not have information about, are not related to diet group.
- Interpretationreasoning
The observed differences between diet groups in amino acid intakes may be explained by protein intake being lower the more animal products were excluded from the diet.
“The observed differences between diet groups in amino acid intakes may be explained by the protein intake being lower the more animal products were excluded from the diet.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Interpretationreasoning
Lower power contributed to the lack of significant correlations between plasma amino acids and protein from animal sources.
“Furthermore, as some diet groups were excluded from the analysis of amino acid concentrations and intakes of protein from animal sources because of zero intake, lower power has also contributed to the lack of significant correlations in this analysis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
- May combine two claims. 21
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataFish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans had on average followed their diet for 11, 12 and 9 years, respectively.
“Fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans had on average followed their diet for 11, 12 and 9 years, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataProtein from all animal products differed by diet group; it was highest in meat-eaters and lowest in vegetarians (zero in vegans by definition).
“Protein from all animal products also differed by diet group; it was highest in meat-eaters and lowest in vegetarians (zero in vegans by definition).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataBMI differed by up to 2.3 kg/m2 between diet groups; it was highest in meat-eaters and lowest in vegans.
“BMI differed by up to 2.3 kg/m2 between diet groups; it was highest in meat-eaters and lowest in vegans (Table 1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataFor non-soya plant products, only correlations for lysine and tyrosine were significant (inverse).
“A similar pattern was seen for non-soya plant products, although only correlations for lysine and tyrosine were significant.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataExceptions to the general intake pattern were arginine, aspartate, glycine and proline; for these, meat-eaters also had the highest intakes, but were followed by vegans for arginine and glycine, with other deviations for aspartate and proline.
“Meat-eaters had the highest intakes, followed by fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans, except for arginine, aspartate, glycine and proline. For these amino acids, meat-eaters also had the highest intakes, but were followed by vegans for arginine and glycine, whereas other deviations from the above pattern were seen for aspartate and proline.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataPlasma glycine concentration was highest in vegans and lowest in meat-eaters.
“For glycine, vegans had the highest concentration and meat-eaters the lowest.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“The largest difference was seen for glycine; mean concentration in vegans was 16% higher than in meat-eaters, who had the lowest concentration, with intermediate concentrations for fish-eaters and vegetarians.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor intakes of lysine and methionine, vegans had 56% and 53% of meat-eaters' intakes, respectively (i.e., 44% and 47% lower).
“The largest percentage differences between diet groups were for intakes of lysine and methionine, which in vegans were 56% and 53% of those in meat-eaters, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataPlasma lysine concentration followed a broadly similar pattern to methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine, with highest concentrations in fish-eaters and vegetarians, followed by meat-eaters, and lowest in vegans.
“A broadly similar pattern was seen for lysine”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“For lysine, methionine, tryptophan and tyrosine fish-eaters and vegetarians generally had the highest concentrations, followed by meat-eaters, whereas vegans had the lowest concentrations for all four.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataEnergy intake and percent energy from protein were highest in meat-eaters and lowest in vegans.
“Similarly, energy intake and percent energy from protein were highest in meat-eaters and lowest in vegans.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataPlasma alanine concentration was highest in fish-eaters and lowest in meat-eaters.
“whereas alanine concentration was highest in fish-eaters and lowest in meat-eaters.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“For alanine, the highest concentration was seen in fish-eaters, followed by vegetarians and vegans, and lowest in meat-eaters.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataProtein from all plant products, non-soya and soya plant products differed by diet group; meat-eaters had the lowest intake, whereas vegans consumed the highest amount.
“Separating the protein intake by food types revealed differences in percent energy from protein from all plant products, non-soya and soya plant products; meat-eaters had the lowest intake, whereas vegans consumed the highest amount.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataConcentrations of many plasma amino acids were correlated; 62% of the correlations were statistically significant after allowance for multiple testing (-0.23≥r≥0.23; P<0.0002).
“Concentrations of many of the plasma amino acids were correlated (Figure 1); 62% of the correlations were statistically significant after allowance for multiple testing (–0.23⩾r⩾0.23; P<0.0002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
- Rests on an assumption: The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThis complex interplay, in addition to the recognised limitations of estimating nutrient intakes using a FFQ, might at least partly explain the differences in results for plasma and dietary amino acids by diet group, as well as the limited strength of correlation between plasma concentrations and intakes.
“This, in addition to the recognised limitations of estimating nutrient intakes using a FFQ,31 might at least partly explain the differences in our results for plasma and dietary amino acids by diet group, as well as the limited strength of correlation between plasma concentrations and intakes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [31] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenSamples from each diet group were equally distributed by the number of thaw-freeze cycles.
“Before the assay for this study, samples had undergone two or three thaw–freeze cycles; samples from each diet group were equally distributed by the number of cycles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenLaboratory technicians were blinded to the diet group and the quality control samples.
“The laboratory technicians were blinded to the diet group and the quality control samples.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationFor leucine, valine, histidine, threonine, arginine and citrulline an association was found in previous studies but not in ours, whereas the opposite was the case for methionine, tryptophan, alanine and glycine.
“For leucine, valine, histidine, threonine, arginine and citrulline an association was found in previous studies but not in ours, whereas the opposite was the case for methionine, tryptophan, alanine and glycine.7, 8, 9”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThere was some variation by diet group in median duration since last meal or drink at blood collection (up to 30 min) and in time between blood collection and processing (up to 19 h), although after adjustment for multiple testing this was not statistically significant.
“There was some variation by diet group in median duration since last meal or drink at blood collection (up to 30 min) and in time between blood collection and processing (up to 19 h), although after adjustment for multiple testing this was not statistically significant (Supplementary Table 1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe observed trend in protein intake may also partly reflect an increasing degree of underestimation of intake as more animal foods are omitted, because some plant foods eaten by vegetarians and vegans may not be in the FFQ and they may eat larger portions than standard portion sizes.
“The observed trend in protein intake may also partly reflect an increasing degree of underestimation of intake as more animal foods are omitted; some plant foods eaten by vegetarians and vegans may not be in the FFQ, and vegetarians and vegans may eat larger portions of some plant foods than the standard portion sizes assigned.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationThe study had data available on both plasma concentrations and dietary intakes of amino acids, as well as on a wide range of covariates, for example BMI.
“Moreover, data were available on both plasma concentrations and dietary intakes of amino acids, as well as on a wide range of covariates, for example BMI, which is related to amino acid concentrations.32”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32]
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitationSelf-reported height and weight showed good agreement with measured values in a sub-sample of the cohort (correlation coefficient r>0.9).
“There was good agreement between self-reported and measured height and weight from a sub-sample of the cohort (correlation coefficient (r)>0.9).14”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe differences in plasma concentrations were less marked than and did not necessarily mirror those seen for amino acid intakes.
“However, the differences in plasma concentrations were less marked than and did not necessarily mirror those seen for amino acid intakes.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“These differences were less pronounced than, and did not mirror those observed for amino acid intakes (the majority of which were highest in meat-eaters followed by fish-eaters, then vegetarians and finally vegans).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataNo samples had concentrations below the lower limit of quantification, whereas for five amino acids a few values (n≤2) were above the highest standard and were set equal to this value.
“No samples had concentrations below the lower limit of quantification, whereas for five amino acids a few values (n⩽2) were above the highest standard and were set equal to this value (400 μmol/l for leucine, histidine, threonine and ornithine, and 800 μmol/l for glutamate).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductown dataAnalyses of plasma amino acid concentrations and intakes were adjusted for age, BMI, smoking status, alcohol intake, time since last food or drink, time between blood collection and processing, and energy intake.
“The analyses of concentrations and intakes were both adjusted for age (30–34; 35–39; 40–44; 45–49 years), body mass index (BMI; <22.5; 22.5–24.9; ⩾25 kg/m2; unknown), smoking status (never; former; current) and alcohol intake (<1; 1–7; 8–15; ⩾16 g/d).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe differences by diet group observed for lysine and tyrosine were supported by similar findings from previous studies, as were the null results for isoleucine, phenylalanine, asparagine, proline, serine and ornithine.
“The differences by diet group we observed for lysine and tyrosine were supported by similar findings from previous studies, as were the null results for isoleucine, phenylalanine, asparagine, proline, serine and ornithine.7, 9”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataIncluding physical activity in the statistical model did not materially change the findings for amino acid intakes.
“Including physical activity in the statistical model did not materially change the findings (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPlasma concentration of amino acids is a result of a complex interplay between dietary intake, tissue breakdown and de-novo synthesis and other factors such as gut microbial synthesis increasing the concentration and tissue uptake and excretion reducing the concentration.
“The plasma concentration of amino acids is a result of a complex interplay between dietary intake, tissue breakdown and de-novo synthesis3 and other factors such as gut microbial synthesis increasing the concentration30 and tissue uptake and excretion reducing the concentration.3”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe median overall coefficient of variation for the amino acids was 11.8% (range 5.4-17.3).
“The median (range) overall coefficient of variation for the amino acids was 11.8% (5.4–17.3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe number of unavailable plasma amino acid concentrations did not differ significantly by diet group for lysine, phenylalanine or proline.
“The number of unavailable concentrations did not differ significantly by diet group for lysine, phenylalanine or proline”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenAll results were interpreted after allowance for multiple testing using the Bonferroni method.
“Conventional two-sided P-values are shown, but all results have been interpreted after allowance for multiple testing using the Bonferroni method; the per-test significance level was 0.05 divided by the number of tests.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Other pre-analytical conditions, which the study did not have information about, are not related to diet group.
“Other pre-analytical conditions, which we do not have information about, are most likely also not related to diet group.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Matching UK foods to the nearest food in the US nutrient database by total protein content yields valid estimates of amino acid intakes for the UK diet groups.
“All UK foods were matched to the nearest food in the US nutrient database, paying specific attention to match on the total protein content so that scaling was not necessary.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The FFQ-based categorisation of participants into diet groups accurately reflects their habitual diet.
“Categorisation of the four diet groups was based on the answers to the questions 'Do you eat any meat; fish; dairy products; and eggs?'”
The paper relies on this without support.
The covariates adjusted for are sufficient to control confounding of the diet-group differences in amino acid concentrations and intakes.
“The analyses of concentrations and intakes were both adjusted for age (30–34; 35–39; 40–44; 45–49 years), body mass index (BMI; <22.5; 22.5–24.9; ⩾25 kg/m2; unknown), smoking status (never; former; current) and alcohol intake (<1; 1–7; 8–15; ⩾16 g/d).”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Animal-based food sources are generally protein dense, especially meat and dairy products, and therefore comprise a major proportion of protein intake in the general population.
“Animal-based food sources are generally protein dense, especially meat and dairy products, and therefore comprise a major proportion of protein intake in the general population [23,37,39].”
From Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [37]
Vegans have a higher risk than omnivores for deficiencies in several micronutrients predominantly found in animal-derived foods, such as vitamin B12, iron, calcium, and vitamin D.
“Large cohort studies indicate that vegans have a higher risk (compared with omnivores) for deficiencies in several micronutrients predominantly found in animal-derived foods, such as vitamin B12, iron, calcium, and vitamin D”
From Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [37]
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Nutritional assessment methods
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Cancer SLC43A2 alters T cell methionine metabolism and histone methylation
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Dietary Protein and Amino Acids in Vegetarian Diets—A Review
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“In the EPIC-Oxford study, amino acid intakes were estimated in both meat-eaters and vegetarians [24].”
MethodThe adverse metabolic effects of branched-chain amino acids are mediated by isoleucine and valine
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“Essential AA levels are lower in plant-based vs. animal-based sources (Boye et al., 2012), and humans consuming vegan or pescatarian diets have lower BCAA levels than meat eaters (Elshorbagy et al., 2017; Schmidt et al., 2016).”
Glycine Metabolism and Its Alterations in Obesity and Metabolic Diseases
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“To support this hypothesis, the multicentric EPIC study has shown that, among adult European males, the average daily intake of glycine varies little according to food choices (meat or fish eaters, vegetarians or vegans) [22].”
BackgroundResultPlant-based diets to manage the risks and complications of chronic kidney disease
Carrero, J. J., González-Ortíz, A., Avesani, C. M., Bakker, S. J. L., Bellizzi, V., Chauveau, P., Clase, C. M., Cupisti, A., Espinosa-Cuevas, Á., Molina, P., et al. (2020) · Nature Reviews Nephrology · doi:10.1038/s41581-020-0297-2 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
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Self-citationThe Chemistry of Protein Oxidation in Food
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“The average intake of histidine in typical, adult diets in Europe, the USA and Japan was reported to be between 2.12 and 2.40 g per day (i.e., about 30 to 35 mg / kg of body weight per day), where men of 50–70 years of age at 5.20 g / day represented the 99th percentile intake [32,33].”
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Self-citationMethionine Restriction Extends Lifespan in Progeroid Mice and Alters Lipid and Bile Acid Metabolism
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“Plasma concentrations of amino acids have been measured in a subsample of male participants: circulating non-fasting concentrations of the essential amino acids lysine, methionine, leucine, valine and tryptophan were 6–13 % lower in vegans (but not in vegetarians) compared to those in meat-eaters((8)).”
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Copper(II)-binding equilibria in human blood
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Glycine: The Smallest Anti-Inflammatory Micronutrient
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“5–3 g/day [6] given that in young men, glycine flux is 34–35 mg/kg/h on average in the fed state; during the post-absorptive state, the glycine flux is decreased by half (around 18 mg/kg/h) [7,8].”
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“However, as recently highlighted, differences in circulating amino acids are less marked than those between amino acid intakes [74].”
BackgroundThe Consortium of Metabolomics Studies (COMETS): Metabolomics in 47 Prospective Cohort Studies
Yu, B., Zanetti, K. A., Temprosa, M. G., Albanes, D., Appel, N., Barrios-Barrera, C., Ben‐Shlomo, Y., Boerwinkle, E., Casas, J. P., Clish, C. B., et al. (2019) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwz028 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citationVegan diet in young children remodels metabolism and challenges the statuses of essential nutrients
Hovinen, T., Korkalo, L., Freese, R., Skaffari, E., Isohanni, P., Niemi, M., Nevalainen, J., Gylling, H., Zamboni, N., Erkkola, M., et al. (2021) · EMBO Molecular Medicine · doi:10.15252/emmm.202013492 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“Similar findings have been reported in adult vegans (Schmidt et al, 2016; Lindqvist et al, 2019).”
Benefits and Adverse Effects of Histidine Supplementation
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Metabolism and the Epigenome: A Dynamic Relationship
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Methionine restriction prevents onset of type 2 diabetes in NZO mice
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Nutritional Metabolomics and the Classification of Dietary Biomarker Candidates: A Critical Review
Rafiq, T., Azab, S. M., Teo, K. K., Thabane, L., Anand, S. S., Morrison, K. M., de Souza, R. J., & Britz‐McKibbin, P. (2021) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmab054 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Altered Asparagine and Glutamate Homeostasis Precede Coronary Artery Disease and Type 2 Diabetes
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“It is worth noting that the circulating (or intravascular) concentrations of the amino acids is variable and are highly influenced by several factors such as diet, lifestyle and metabolism (Schmidt et al., 2016).”
BackgroundAdequacy of Plant-Based Proteins in Chronic Kidney Disease.
Joshi, S., Shah, S., & Kalantar-zadeh, K. (2019) · Journal of renal nutrition · doi:10.1053/j.jrn.2018.06.006 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Haws, S. A., Yu, D., Ye, C., Wille, C. K., Nguyen, L. C., Krautkramer, K. A., Tomasiewicz, J. L., Yang, S. E., Miller, B. R., Liu, W. H., et al. (2020) · Molecular Cell · doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2020.03.004 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Golbourn, B. J., Halbert, M. E., Halligan, K. E., Varadharajan, S., Krug, B., Mbah, N. E., Kabir, N., Stanton, A.-C. J., Locke, A. L., Casillo, S. M., et al. (2022) · Nature Cancer · doi:10.1038/s43018-022-00348-3 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Kay, E. J., Koulouras, G., & Zanivan, S. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2021.719922 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Targeting Transporters for Drug Delivery to the Brain: Can We Do Better?
Puris, E., Fricker, G., & Gynther, M. (2022) · Pharmaceutical Research · doi:10.1007/s11095-022-03241-x · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“1 3 when the prodrug has to compete against endogenous substrates, such as amino acids or glucose, having high concentrations in the body (75, 76).”
BackgroundEngel, K. M., Baumann, S., Rolle-Kampczyk, U. E., et al. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211679 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Age and Sex Effects on Plasma Metabolite Association Networks in Healthy Subjects
Vignoli, A., Tenori, L., Luchinat, C., & Saccenti, E. (2017) · Journal of Proteome Research · doi:10.1021/acs.jproteome.7b00404 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Blood Metabolic Signatures of Body Mass Index: A Targeted Metabolomics Study in the EPIC Cohort
Carayol, M., Leitzmann, M. F., Ferrari, P., Zamora‐Ros, R., Achaintre, D., Stępień, M., Schmidt, J. A., Travis, R. C., Overvad, K., Tjønneland, A. M., et al. (2017) · Journal of Proteome Research · doi:10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b01062 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationIdentification of biomarkers to diagnose diseases and find adverse drug reactions by metabolomics
Saigusa, D., Matsukawa, N., Hishinuma, E., & Koshiba, S. (2020) · Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics · doi:10.1016/j.dmpk.2020.11.008 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Plant-Based Diet: Is It as Good as an Animal-Based Diet When It Comes to Protein?
Ewy, M. W., Patel, A., Abdelmagid, M. G., Elfadil, O. M., Bonnes, S. L. R., Salonen, B. R., Hurt, R. T., & Mundi, M. S. (2022) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-022-00401-8 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Methionine metabolism controls the B cell EBV epigenome and viral latency
Guo, R., Liang, J. H., Zhang, Y., Lutchenkov, M., Li, Z., Wang, Y., Trujillo-Alonso, V., Puri, R., Giulino-Roth, L. G., & Gewurz, B. E. (2022) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2022.08.008 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Craddock, J. C., Genoni, A., Strutt, E. F., & Goldman, D. (2021) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-020-00348-8 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Effect of Methionine Restriction on Aging: Its Relationship to Oxidative Stress
Kitada, M., Ogura, Y., Monno, I., Xu, J., & Koya, D. (2021) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines9020130 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“Dietary methionine is contained in animal sources of protein, such as beef, lamb, fish, pork and eggs, at higher levels than plant sources of proteins, which include nuts, seeds, legumes, cereals, vegetables and fruits [87].”
BackgroundTrautman, M. E., Richardson, N. E., & Lamming, D. W. (2022) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/acel.13626 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Schmidt, J. A., Fensom, G. K., Rinaldi, S., Scalbert, A., Appleby, P. N., Achaintre, D., Gicquiau, A., Gunter, M. J., Ferrari, P., Kaaks, R., et al. (2019) · International Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1002/ijc.32314 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“There are also some published data on dietary and lifestyle correlates of themetabolites in treelet component 2.(23,26,37,38) Altered levels of phosphatidylcholines, lysophospholipids (mostly lower), sphingomyelins, acylcarnitines, glutamate, ornithine (mostly lower) and taurine in postdiagnostic samples from prostate…”
BackgroundSelf-citationter Borg, S., Luiking, Y. C., van Helvoort, A., Boirie, Y., Schols, J. M. G. A., & de Groot, C. P. G. M. (2018) · The journal of nutrition health & aging · doi:10.1007/s12603-018-1108-3 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Increased plasma proline concentrations are associated with sarcopenia in the elderly
Toyoshima, K., Nakamura, M., Adachi, Y., Imaizumi, A., Hakamada, T., Abe, Y., Kaneko, E., Takahashi, S., & Shimokado, K. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185206 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Glycine by MR spectroscopy is an imaging biomarker of glioma aggressiveness
Tiwari, V., Daoud, E. V., Hatanpaa, K. J., Gao, A., Zhang, S., An, Z., Ganji, S., Raisanen, J. M., Lewis, C. M., Askari, P., et al. (2020) · Neuro-Oncology · doi:10.1093/neuonc/noaa034 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Su, Y., Elshorbagy, A. K., Turner, C., Refsum, H., Chan, R., & Kwok, T. C. Y. (2019) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2019.115082 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Sources and Sinks of Serine in Nutrition, Health, and Disease
Handzlik, M. K., & Metallo, C. M. (2023) · Annual Review of Nutrition · doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-061021-022648 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“For this reason, clinical trials quantifying plasma amino acid concentration in healthy individuals abstaining from consumption of meat products found little evidence of systemic L -serine deficiency (22, 101).”
BackgroundNext generation strategies for geroprotection via mTORC1 inhibition.
Dumas, S., & Lamming, D. (2019) · The journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences · doi:10.1093/gerona/glz056 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Dietary Pattern and Plasma BCAA-Variations in Healthy Men and Women—Results from the KarMeN Study
Merz, B., Frommherz, L., Rist, M. J., Kulling, S. E., Bub, A., & Watzl, B. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10050623 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“In contrast, observational studies reported only weak correlations between dietary and plasma BCAA concentrations [1,8,9].”
BackgroundMonteyne, A. J., Coelho, M. O. C., Murton, A. J., Abdelrahman, D. R., Blackwell, J. R., Koscien, C. P., Knapp, K. M., Fulford, J., Finnigan, T. J. A., Dirks, M. L., et al. (2023) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.02.023 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Is Homoarginine a Protective Cardiovascular Risk Factor?
Karetnikova, E. S., Jarzebska, N., Markov, A. G., Weiss, N., Lentz, S. R., & Rodionov, R. N. (2019) · Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology · doi:10.1161/atvbaha.118.312218 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Amino acid changes during transition to a vegan diet supplemented with fish in healthy humans
Elshorbagy, A. K., Jernerén, F., Basta, M., Basta, C., Turner, C., Khaled, M. A. T. M., & Refsum, H. (2016) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-016-1237-6 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“The decline in BCAAs in the present study in response to decreased animal protein intake thus extends epidemiologic [32], and acute interventional data [8, 33], by demonstrating an effect of short-term modification of habitual diet on BCAAs.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSegovia‐Siapco, G., & Sabaté, J. (2019) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/s41430-019-0427-8 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Human gut microbiome, diet, and mental disorders
Borrego-Ruiz, A., & Borrego, J. J. (2024) · International Microbiology · doi:10.1007/s10123-024-00518-6 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“…acids, such as methionine, tryptophan, and tyrosine, which are present at very low concentration in plant-based diets, may explain the relationship between these diets and the processes of depression (Schmidt et al. 2016), based on the metabolism of dopamine and serotonin (Aucoin et al. 2018).”
Observational and clinical evidence that plant-based nutrition reduces dietary acid load
Storz, M. A., Ronco, Á. L., & Hannibal, L. (2022) · Journal of Nutritional Science · doi:10.1017/jns.2022.93 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Plant proteins are higher in glycine than most animal proteins((39)) and it is not surprising that vegans had the highest plasma concentration of this amino acid in the Epic Oxford cohort study((28)).”
BackgroundTong, T. Y. N., Key, T. J., Gaitskell, K. L., Green, T., Guo, W., Sanders, T. A. B., & Bradbury, K. E. (2019) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqz072 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Parallel evidence from large-scale human studies is lacking, but previous studies do show differences in dietary and serum amino acids between different diet groups (17).”
BackgroundSelf-citationComparison of protein quality and digestibility between plant-based and meat-based burgers
Cutroneo, S., Prandi, B., Faccini, A., Pellegrini, N., Sforza, S., & Tedeschi, T. (2023) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113183 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Unusual Aggregates Formed by the Self-Assembly of Proline, Hydroxyproline, and Lysine
Koshti, B., Kshtriya, V., Singh, R. S., Walia, S., Bhatia, D. D., Joshi, K. B., & Gour, N. (2021) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00427 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The metabolomic quest for a biomarker in chronic kidney disease
Davies, R. (2018) · Clinical Kidney Journal · doi:10.1093/ckj/sfy037 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Playdon, M. C., Joshi, A. D., Tabung, F. K., Cheng, S. C., Henglin, M., Kim, A., Lin, T., van Roekel, E. H., Huang, J., Krumsiek, J., et al. (2019) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo9070145 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationMetabolomics Analysis of the Beef Samples with Different Meat Qualities and Tastes
Jeong, J. Y., Kim, M., Ji, S. Y., Baek, Y.-C., Lee, S., Oh, Y. K., Reddy, K. E., Seo, H.-W., Cho, S., & Lee, H. J. (2020) · Food Science of Animal Resources · doi:10.5851/kosfa.2020.e59 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
High Protein Intake Is Associated With Histological Disease Activity in Patients With NAFLD
Lang, S., Martin, A., Farowski, F., Wisplinghoff, H., Vehreschild, M. J. G. T., Liu, J., Krawczyk, M. J., Nowag, A., Kretzschmar, A., Herweg, J., et al. (2020) · Hepatology Communications · doi:10.1002/hep4.1509 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“(27) Notably, meat and other animal products serve as the main source of protein in Western diet with varying concentrations of specific amino acids,(11,14,15) whereas a vegetarian or vegan diet leads to a significantly lower intake of total and specific dietary amino acids.(14) Not all amino acids Fig.”
BackgroundDietary Methionine and Total Sulfur Amino Acid Restriction in Healthy Adults
Richie, J. P., Sinha, R., Dong, Z., Nichenametla, S. N., Ables, G. P., Ciccarella, A., Sinha, I., Calcagnotto, A., Chinchilli, V. M., Reinhart, L., et al. (2023) · The journal of nutrition health & aging · doi:10.1007/s12603-023-1883-3 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“In a previous clinical feeding study, decreases in both SAA and BCAA levels in plasma were shown to result in individuals transitioning to a vegan-based diet enriched with fish (51) and meat-lovers versus vegans (52).”
BackgroundWang, F., Wan, Y., Yin, K., Wei, Y., Wang, B., Yu, X., Ni, Y., Zheng, J., Huang, T., Song, M., et al. (2019) · Molecular Nutrition & Food Research · doi:10.1002/mnfr.201900612 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Calvani, R., Rodríguez‐Mañas, L., Picca, A., Marini, F., Biancolillo, A., Laosa, O., Pedraza, L., Gervasoni, J., Primiano, A., Conta, G., et al. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12010199 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“However, it has recently been reported that differences in blood amino acid concentrations do not necessarily mirror those of amino acid intakes [82].”
BackgroundVegetarian Epidemiology: Review and Discussion of Findings from Geographically Diverse Cohorts
Orlich, M. J., Chiu, T. H. T., Dhillon, P. K., Key, T. J., Fraser, G. E., Shridhar, K., Agrawal, S., & Kinra, S. (2018) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmy109 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Metabolic profiles also differ between diet groups, for example vegans have relatively low plasma concentrations of lysine and methionine, but relatively high concentrations of glycine (7).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRolands, M. R., Hackl, L. S., Bochud, M., & Kim, L. A. (2024) · Journal of NutriLife · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2024.07.033 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Ferreiro, S. R., López, A. M., Villares, J. M. M., Ferreiro, S. R., López, A. M., Villares, J. M. M., Trabazo, R. L., Díaz, J. J., de Pipaón, M. S., Blesa, L., et al. (2019) · Anales de Pediatría · doi:10.1016/j.anpedi.2019.10.013 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Vegetarian Diet Is Associated with Lower Risk of Depression in Taiwan
Shen, Y., Chang, C.-E., Lin, M., & Lin, C.-L. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13041059 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Therefore, vegetarian diets, which tend to have a high carbohydrate-to-protein ratio, may facilitate tryptophan entry into the brain and higher production of serotonin and less depression [49].”
BackgroundThe regulation of healthspan and lifespan by dietary amino acids
Babygirija, R., & Lamming, D. (2021) · Translational Medicine of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.tma.2021.05.001 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Plant-based diets have a reduced level of methionine as compared to animal sources, and humans consuming a vegan diet have reduced plasma levels of methionine compared to humans who eat animal proteins (102, 103).”
BackgroundDietrich, S., Trefflich, I., Ueland, P. M., Menzel, J., Penczynski, K. J., Abraham, K., & Weikert, C. (2022) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-021-02790-y · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Nebl, J., Drabert, K., Haufe, S., Wasserfurth, P., Eigendorf, J., Tegtbur, U., Hahn, A., & Tsikas, D. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11081875 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“The plasma levels of Asp + Asn, guanidinoacetate, Glu + Gln, Lys, Arg and homoarginine were lower in the LOV group compared to the VEG group, which partly agrees with findings of the EPIC Oxford cohort [25].”
BackgroundResultYang, Y., Lu, M., Xu, Y., Qian, J., Le, G., & Xie, Y. (2022) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.2c04847 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Verzola, D., Picciotto, D., Saio, M., Aimasso, F., Bruzzone, F., Sukkar, S. G., Massarino, F., Esposito, P. B., Viazzi, F. C., & Garibotto, G. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13010083 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“[89] in the Oxford arm of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition Study, observed that intake of 18 dietary AAs was highest in meat-eaters, followed by fish-eaters, then vegetarians and lowest in vegans (up to 47% lower than in meat-eaters).”
BackgroundNutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete
West, S., Monteyne, A. J., van der Heijden, I., Stephens, F. B., & Wall, B. T. (2023) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.04.012 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Banerjee, S., Poore, M., Gerdes, S., Nedveck, D. A., Lauridsen, L., Kristensen, H. T., Jensen, H. M., Byrd, P. M., Ouwehand, A. C., Patterson, E., et al. (2021) · Microbial Cell Factories · doi:10.1186/s12934-021-01658-4 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“The intrinsic glutamate level of MRS, the synthetic medium used in the growth experiment, is similar to the mean daily intake of glutamate, which is around 15 g for meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians, and vegans [50].”
The Impact of a Vegan Diet on Many Aspects of Health: The Overlooked Side of Veganism
Bali, A., & Naik, R. (2023) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.35148 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Vegans consume fewer essential amino acids than non-vegans [15].”
Vitamin B12and folate status in Spanish lacto-ovo vegetarians and vegans
Gallego‐Narbón, A., Zapatera, B., Barrios, L., & Vaquero, M. P. (2019) · Journal of Nutritional Science · doi:10.1017/jns.2019.2 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Regarding the influence of methionine on Hcy, protein consumption and methionine levels have been reported to be higher in lacto-ovo vegetarians than vegans, which in a scenario of folate repletion as observed in our study might lead to higher rates of HHcy in lacto-ovo vegetarian subjects under similar vitamin B12 le…”
ResultRiazati, N., Kable, M. E., Newman, J. W. I., Adkins, Y. C., Freytag, T. L., Jiang, X., & Stephensen, C. B. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.917966 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Rizo‐Roca, D., Henderson, J. D., & Zierath, J. R. (2025) · Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1111/joim.20090 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Studies in obese and insulin-resistant individuals have shown that NR supplementation does not sig-nificantly affect metabolic indicators, such as glucose, insulin, GLP-1, or body composition measures, nor does it appear to improve insulin sensitivity or lipid metabolism [103, 104].”
InfluentialGut microbiota and obesity: an overview of microbiota to microbial-based therapies
Sheykhsaran, E., Abbasi, A., Leylabadlo, H. E., Sadeghi, J., Mehri, S., Mazraeh, F. N., Feizi, H., & Baghi, H. B. (2022) · Postgraduate Medical Journal · doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2021-141311 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Proline Oxidation Supports Mitochondrial ATP Production When Complex I Is Inhibited
Pallag, G., Nazarian, S., Ravasz, D., Bui, D., Komlódi, T., Doerrier, C., Gnaiger, E., Seyfried, T. N., & Chinopoulos, C. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23095111 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Tharrey, M., Mariotti, F., Mashchak, A., Barbillon, P., Delattre, M., Huneau, J., & Fraser, G. E. (2019) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyz194 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of the Association Between Vegan Diets and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease
Kaiser, J., van Daalen, K. R., Thayyil, A., Cocco, M. T. D. A. R. R., Caputo, D., & Oliver-Williams, C. (2021) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxab037 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Николаевна, Е. М., Aleynik, D. Y., Rubtsova, Y. P., Levin, G. Y., Charykova, I. N., Semenycheva, L. L., Bugrova, M. L., & Zakharychev, E. A. (2019) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2019.10.003 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Lépine, G., Fouillet, H., Rémond, D., Huneau, J., Mariotti, F., & Polakof, S. (2021) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmab073 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Regulation of metabolic health by dietary histidine in mice
Flores, V., Spicer, A. B., Sonsalla, M. M., Richardson, N. E., Yu, D., Sheridan, G. E., Trautman, M. E., Babygirija, R., Cheng, E. P., Rojas, J. M., et al. (2022) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp283261 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“…promotes metabolic health and extends lifespan in rodents (Orentreich et al., 1993; Richie et al., 1994; Miller et al., 2005; Lees et al., 2014; Schmidt et al., 2016; Lees et al., 2017), due to the belief that lower levels of dietary methionine might account for the health benefits of a vegan…”
BackgroundAntoniussen, C. S., Rasmussen, H. H., Holst, M., & Lauridsen, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.733433 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Redecillas-Ferreiro, S., López, A. M., & Moreno-Villares, J. M. (2020) · Anales de Pediatría (English Edition) · doi:10.1016/j.anpede.2019.10.004 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Li, Q., You, Y., Zeng, Y., Wang, X., Pan, Z., Pang, J., Chen, Q., Zhou, Y., Jin, Y., Yang, Y., et al. (2022) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqac170 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Obara‐Michlewska, M. (2022) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2022.105363 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Autonomous wearable sensing enabled by capillary microfluidics: a review
Kuruvinashetti, K., Komeili, A., & Sanati‐Nezhad, A. (2025) · Lab on a Chip · doi:10.1039/d5lc00536a · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Lee, S., Yim, Y.-S., Lee, Y., Lee, B., Kim, H.-S., Kim, K., Lee, Y.-W., & Kim, J. (2018) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2018.03.028 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
L‐lysine: Its antagonism with L‐arginine in controlling viral infection. Narrative literature review
Pedrazini, M. C., da Silva, M. H., & Groppo, F. C. (2022) · British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bcp.15444 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“The value in grams/day of L-lysine through food has been estimated by some authors to be between 4 and 5 g/day in adults with adequate diets.(72,73) However, the daily requirement in a 70 kg adult would be between 800 and 3000 mg(30) and in face of supplementation necessity, the dose of 3 g/day is safe without having…”
Background
- Authors
- Schmidt, J. A., Rinaldi, S., Scalbert, A., Ferrari, P., Achaintre, D., Gunter, M. J., Appleby, P. N., Key, T. J., & Travis, R. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Centre international de recherche sur le cancer (FR)
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Schmidt, J A
- Venue
- European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Published
- 2015-09-23
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 306-312
- ISSN
- 0954-3007 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-5640
- PMC
- PMC4705437
- OpenAlex
- W2190313991
- Semantic Scholar
- 9f6c5a8efa351ec943be64c94dddc8e36e29f197
- Cited by
- 349
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 54 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 9
- FWCI
- 17.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Agriculture
- World Health Organization
- Cancer Research UK (19170, 16491, C8221/A19170, A16491, 570/A16491, A19170)
- Medical Research Council (MR/M012190/1)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Metabolomics and Mass Spectrometry Studies
- Keywords
- plasma amino acids, meat-eaters, vegetarians, vegans, dietary protein quality, methionine, tryptophan, tyrosine, lysine, glycine, alanine, amino acid metabolism
- MeSH terms
- Diet, Vegan, Adult, Alanine, Amino Acids, Animals, Energy Intake, Cross-Sectional Studies, Fishes, Glycine, Humans, Lysine, Male, Meat, Methionine, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Tryptophan, Tyrosine, Diet, Vegetarian, Seafood
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