The DOI matches its Crossref record; 41 of the 43 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Dating the rise of atmospheric oxygen
Abstract
Several lines of geological and geochemical evidence indicate that the level of atmospheric oxygen was extremely low before 2.45 billion years (Gyr) ago, and that it had reached considerable levels by 2.22 Gyr ago. Here we present evidence that the rise of atmospheric oxygen had occurred by 2.32 Gyr ago. We found that syngenetic pyrite is present in organic-rich shales of the 2.32-Gyr-old Rooihoogte and Timeball Hill formations, South Africa. The range of the isotopic composition of sulphur in this pyrite is large and shows no evidence of mass-independent fractionation, indicating that atmospheric oxygen was present at significant levels (that is, greater than 10(-5) times that of the present atmospheric level) during the deposition of these units. The presence of rounded pebbles of sideritic iron formation at the base of the Rooihoogte Formation and an extensive and thick ironstone layer consisting of haematitic pisolites and oölites in the upper Timeball Hill Formation indicate that atmospheric oxygen rose significantly, perhaps for the first time, during the deposition of the Rooihoogte and Timeball Hill formations. These units were deposited between what are probably the second and third of the three Palaeoproterozoic glacial events.
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“The Great Oxygenation Event (GOE) at 2.45-2.22Ga (Bekker et al., 2004;Guo et al., 2009;Gumsley et al., 2017) marks the rapid appearance of free oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere (Anbar et al., 2007;Sessions et al., 2009)”
From Secular change and the onset of plate tectonics on Earth (2020) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“Although minor occurrences of low δ34S pyrite have recently been reported in late Archean strata by in situ analysis (58), samples studied here are the oldest samples that exhibit low δ34S values in bulk rock analyses (18, 59).”
From Rapid oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere 2.33 billion years ago (2016) · cites this paper as [18]
In the citing paper
“resolving the origin of the hydrocarbon biomarkers hosted in Archean rocks would either recast or solidify the late Archean framework in which we understand one of the most profound biologically mediated transformations of the planet-the Great Oxidation Event [GOE; ∼2.4 billion years ago (Ga)] (13).”
From Reappraisal of hydrocarbon biomarkers in Archean rocks (2015) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“In the rock record, this event is manifested by a number of changes (see Farquhar et al., 2011, 2014, for reviews), including (1) loss of easily oxidisable detrital uraninite, pyrite, and siderite from fluvial siliciclastic sediments at ca. 2.4 Ga”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“that effectively disappeared from the sedimentary record between 2.45 and 2.32 Ga (e.g., Bekker et al., 2004;Farquhar et al., 2000;2011).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“The disappearance of S-MIF is perhaps the most accepted evidence for the onset of widespread and permanent oxygenation of the Earth's surface to levels above 10 -5 times present atmospheric levels (PAL) (see Pavlov and Kasting, 2002;Bekker et al., 2004;Farquhar et al., 2000;2011).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2004
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“, 2018), the detailed information has been obtained from recent publications (Bekker et al., 2004; Lyons et al., 2014).”
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“…that Eukaryotes already existed at this remote period (Brocks et al., 1999); b) the date of the oxygenation of the atmosphere and oceans that stimulated the Eukaryotic radiation is twice as old as was5 believed – no longer 1200 Ma (Knoll, 1992) but 2400 Ma (Bekker et al., 2004; Holland, 2006).”
BackgroundPhilippot, P., Killingsworth, B. A., Paquette, J., Tessalina, S. G., Cartigny, P., Lalonde, S. V., Thomazo, C., Ávila, J. N., & Busigny, V. (2021) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103594 · Cited by 7
Ai, Y., Zhu, G., Li, T., & Zhu, Z. (2023) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2023.105588 · Cited by 7
Kuang, W., Kopparapu, R., Krissansen‐Totton, J., & Mills, B. J. W. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adu8826 · Cited by 6
“We combined these estimates in line with a previous work ( 21 ), but we omit the additional curve that is based on an inversion of carbon isotope record to estimate oxygen production fluxes ( 48 ).”
InfluentialOllivier, B., Zeyen, N., Galès, G., Hickman‐Lewis, K., Gaboyer, F., Benzerara, K., & Westall, F. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-99784-1_3 · Cited by 9
Great Oxidation Event and Snowball Earth
Tajika, E., & Harada, M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-3639-3_17 · Cited by 6
Johnson, J. E., Webb, S. M., Condit, C. B., Beukes, N. J., & Fischer, W. W. (2019) · South African Journal of Geology · doi:10.25131/sajg.122.0034 · Cited by 6
Self-citationSun, Q., Zhou, Y., Zhao, T., Pang, L., & Qiu, Y. (2020) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105789 · Cited by 6
van de Kamp, P. C., & James, R. S. (2022) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2022.106607 · Cited by 6
Sun, Q., Zhao, T., Zhou, J., Wu, Z., & Zhou, Y. (2022) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2022.106924 · Cited by 6
“…of the Precambrian which was marked by significant paleoclimatic upheavals and tectono-magmatic changes on Earth ’ s evolution (e.g., Holland, 2002; Bekker et al., 2004; Lyons et al., 2014; Santosh et al., 2015, 2020; Zhai and Peng, 2020), including rising in atmospheric oxygen, extreme events in…”
Zhang, S., Wang, H., Tang, H., Cai, Y., Kong, L., Pei, J., Zhang, Q., Hu, G., & Zhao, Y. J. (2023) · Terra Nova · doi:10.1111/ter.12687 · Cited by 6
“The Great Oxidation Event (GOE) started from 2.43 Ga (Gumsley et al., 2017 ) or 2.33– 2.32 Ga (Bekker et al., 2004; Luo et al., 2016; Poulton et al., 2021) is a profound turning point in Earth's history and represents the first significant buildup in Earth's atmospheric oxygen (Canfield, 2005;…”
BackgroundInfluentialPast and present dynamics of the iron biogeochemical cycle
Dauphas, N., Heard, A. W., Rêgo, E. S., Rouxel, O. J., Marin‐Carbonne, J., Pasquier, V., Bekker, A., & Rowley, D. B. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99762-1.00059-0 · Cited by 7
Self-citationEmergence of Animals from Heat Engines – Part 1. Before the Snowball Earths
Muller, A. W. J. (2009) · Entropy · doi:10.3390/e11030463 · Cited by 7
“by cyanobacteria that possibly emerged at 2,8 Ga (Schwartzman et al., 2008), i.e. after the 2,9 Ga glaciation. The oxygen concentration in the atmosphere became significant between 2,45 and 2,32 Ga (Bekker et al., 2004). The first fossils attributed to the eukaryotes have been dated around 1,8 Ga (Knoll et al., 2006),…”
BackgroundMazumder, R. (2017) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2017.06.026 · Cited by 6
Molecular opacities of low-lying states of oxygen molecule*
Liang, G., Peng, Y.-G., Li, R., Wu, Y., & Wang, J. (2019) · Chinese Physics B · doi:10.1088/1674-1056/ab5fb6 · Cited by 6
Stratigraphic Framework of the Cryogenian in China
Yu, Y., Ye, Q., Zhang, K., He, W., Song, B., Xu, Y., Kou, X., Wang, J., & Yang, F. (2020) · Acta Geologica Sinica - English Edition · doi:10.1111/1755-6724.14553 · Cited by 6
黄, 咸., 刘, 邓., 王, 永., 徐, 冉., 谢, 树., 龚, 一., Luo, G., & 杨, 欢. (2012) · Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version) · doi:10.1360/csb2012-57-1-3 · Cited by 5
Microbial sulphur-cycling and atmospheric signatures in the 2.52 Ga Gamohaan Formation, South Africa
McLoughlin, N., Li, M., Wacey, D., Martin, L. A. J., Shen, Y., & Beukes, N. J. (2022) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117941 · Cited by 6
Self-citationKiyokawa, S., Suzuki, T., El-Dokouny, H. A., Dawoud, M. I., & Abuelhasan, M. M. (2020) · Journal of African Earth Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2020.103805 · Cited by 6
Mänd, K., Lalonde, S. V., Paiste, P., Thoby, M., Lumiste, K., Robbins, L. J., Kreitsmann, T., Romashkin, A. E., Kirsimäe, K., Lepland, A., et al. (2021) · Minerals · doi:10.3390/min11040368 · Cited by 6
Phylogenomic Dating and the Relative Ancestry of Prokaryotic Metabolisms
Blank, C. E. (2008) · Cellular origin and life in extreme habitats · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8837-7_13 · Cited by 6
Albrechtová, J. T. P., Vervliet‐Scheebaum, M., Normann, J., Veit, J., & Wagner, E. (2006) · Biological Rhythm Research · doi:10.1080/09291010600804692 · Cited by 6
“From primary fermentation, energy conservation progressed to anaerobic photosynthesis and then to carbon dioxide fixation with acceptance of electrons by water and evolution of oxygen (Bekker et al. 2004).”
BackgroundCowie, J. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511803826.004 · Cited by 6
The Evolution of the Sedimentary Sulfur Cycle
Rickard, D. T. (2012) · Developments in sedimentology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-52989-3.00017-9 · Cited by 6
The Identification and Interpretation of Microbial Biogeomagnetism
Kopp, R. E. (2007) · CaltechTHESIS (California Institute of Technology) · doi:10.7907/83r3-vb23 · Cited by 8
Geochemistry and Secular Geochemical Evolution of the Earth's Mantle and Lower Crust
Kamber, B. S. (2011) · Frontiers in Geochemistry · doi:10.1002/9781444329957.ch1 · Cited by 6
Geochemical and Cosmochemical Materials
LIPSCHUTZ, M. E., Wolf, S. F., Culp, F. B., & Hanchar, J. M. (2005) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/ac050566b · Cited by 6
Zeng, T., Tang, L., Santosh, M., & Wang, H. (2024) · Geoscience Frontiers · doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2024.101990 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- Bekker, A., Holland, H. D., Wang, P.-L., Rumble, D., Stein, H. J., Hannah, J. L., Coetzee, L. L., & Beukes, N. J.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Carnegie Institution for Science (US)
- Colorado State University (US)
- University of Johannesburg (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Bekker, A.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2004-01
- Volume
- 427
- Issue
- 6970
- Pages
- 117-120
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2090027771
- Cited by
- 1,435
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 76 · 2020: 79 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 70 · 2014: 72 · 2013: 99 · 2012: 69
- FWCI
- 53.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
- Keywords
- Great Oxidation, atmospheric oxygen rise, sulfur isotopes, mass-independent fractionation, oolites, Neoproterozoic, Precambrian geochemistry
- MeSH terms
- Atmosphere, Carbonates, Cold Climate, Geography, Ice, Iron, Isotopes, Oxygen, South Africa, Sulfides, Sulfur, Time Factors, Geologic Sediments
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