Cited by 1,435Paleontology and Stratigraphy of FossilsGeological and Geochemical AnalysisGeochemistry and Elemental Analysis

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Dating the rise of atmospheric oxygen

Bekker, A., Holland, H. D., Wang, P.-L., Rumble, D., Stein, H. J., Hannah, J. L., Coetzee, L. L., Beukes, N. J.·2004·Nature

DOI 10.1038/nature02260

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Abstract

Several lines of geological and geochemical evidence indicate that the level of atmospheric oxygen was extremely low before 2.45 billion years (Gyr) ago, and that it had reached considerable levels by 2.22 Gyr ago. Here we present evidence that the rise of atmospheric oxygen had occurred by 2.32 Gyr ago. We found that syngenetic pyrite is present in organic-rich shales of the 2.32-Gyr-old Rooihoogte and Timeball Hill formations, South Africa. The range of the isotopic composition of sulphur in this pyrite is large and shows no evidence of mass-independent fractionation, indicating that atmospheric oxygen was present at significant levels (that is, greater than 10(-5) times that of the present atmospheric level) during the deposition of these units. The presence of rounded pebbles of sideritic iron formation at the base of the Rooihoogte Formation and an extensive and thick ironstone layer consisting of haematitic pisolites and oölites in the upper Timeball Hill Formation indicate that atmospheric oxygen rose significantly, perhaps for the first time, during the deposition of the Rooihoogte and Timeball Hill formations. These units were deposited between what are probably the second and third of the three Palaeoproterozoic glacial events.

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Geochemistry and mineralogy of the 2.45 Ga Pronto paleosols, Ontario, Canada
Nedachi, Y., Nedachi, M., Bennett, G., & Ohmoto, H. (2004) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2004.08.026 · Cited by 52
Common Freshwater Cyanobacteria Grow in 100% CO 2
Thomas, D. J., Sullivan, S. L., Price, A. L., & Zimmerman, S. M. (2005) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2005.5.66 · Cited by 51
Regulation of antioxidant defense and glyoxalase systems in cyanobacteria
Rai, R., Singh, S., Rai, K. K., Raj, A., Sriwastaw, S., & Rai, L. C. (2021) · Plant Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.plaphy.2021.09.037 · Cited by 51
The origin and evolution of cyanobacteria
Shestakov, S. V., & Karbysheva, E. A. (2017) · Biology Bulletin Reviews · doi:10.1134/s2079086417040090 · Cited by 50
“…2.45 billion years old indicated the existence of anoxygenic atmosphere, whereas the absence of such fractionation 2.3 billion years ago during Great Oxidation Event has been considered chronological evidence of active oxygen release by cyanobacteria (Farquhar and Wing, 2003 Bekker et al., 2004).”
BackgroundInfluential
Photomineralization and photomethanification of dissolved organic matter in Saguenay River surface water
Zhang, Y., & Xie, H. (2015) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-12-6823-2015 · Cited by 51
Oxygen for heavy-metal fans
Lyons, T. W., & Reinhard, C. T. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/461179a · Cited by 51
Geology of the Pitangui greenstone belt, Minas Gerais, Brazil: Stratigraphy, geochronology and BIF geochemistry
Soares, M. B., Neto, A. V. C., Zeh, A., Cabral, A. R., Pereira, L. F., do Prado, M. G. B., de Almeida, A. M., Manduca, L. G., da Silva, P. H. M., Mabub, R. O. D. A., et al. (2017) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2017.01.008 · Cited by 51
Ribosomal protein-sequence block structure suggests complex prokaryotic evolution with implications for the origin of eukaryotes
Vishwanath, P., Favaretto, P., Hartman, H., Mohr, S. C., & Smith, T. F. (2004) · Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.07.003 · Cited by 49
The REE-composition and petrography of apatite in 2Ga Zaonega Formation, Russia: The environmental setting for phosphogenesis
Joosu, L., Lepland, A., Kirsimäe, K., Romashkin, A. E., Roberts, N. M. W., Martin, A. P., & Črne, A. E. (2014) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2014.11.013 · Cited by 49
Primary origin of marginal Ni-Cu-(PGE) mineralization in layered intrusions: 33S evidence from The Platreef, Bushveld, South Africa
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Molybdenum record from black shales indicates oscillating atmospheric oxygen levels in the early Paleoproterozoic
Asael, D., Rouxel, O. J., Poulton, S. W., Lyons, T. W., & Bekker, A. (2018) · American Journal of Science · doi:10.2475/03.2018.01 · Cited by 52
Self-citation
The oxygen cycle and a habitable Earth
Huang, J., Liu, X., Shen, S., Shen, S., Hou, Z., Li, C., Li, C., Yao, L., & Huang, J. (2021) · Science China Earth Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11430-020-9747-1 · Cited by 53
Multiple sulfur and carbon isotope composition of sediments from the Belingwe Greenstone Belt (Zimbabwe): A biogenic methane regulation on mass independent fractionation of sulfur during the Neoarchean?
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“32 Ga (Bekker et al., 2004; Papineau et al., 2007; Guo et al., 2009) is attributed to the global oxidation of the atmosphere to a level >10 5 PAL (Pavlov and Kasting, 2002).”
Background
U–Pb systematics in carbonates of the Postmasburg Group, Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa: Primary versus metasomatic controls
Fairey, B., Tsikos, H., Corfú, F., & Polteau, S. (2013) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2013.03.010 · Cited by 49
Causes and consequences of low atmospheric pCO2 in the Late Mesoproterozoic
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Carbon Mineral Evolution
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“…to perhaps a few percent of modern levels at approximately 2.4 to 2.25 Ga (Canfield et al. 2000; Kump et al. 2001; Kasting 2001; Kasting and Siefert 2002; Holland 2002; Towe 2002; Bekker et al. 2004; Barley et al. 2005; Catling and Claire 2005; Papineau et al. 2005, 2007; Kump and Barley 2007).”
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The evolution of autotrophy in relation to phosphorus requirement
Raven, J. A. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Botany · doi:10.1093/jxb/ert306 · Cited by 49
“32 Ga; Bekker et al., 2004; Planavsky et al., 2010) was only 10–25% of that in present oceans (Bjerrum and Canfield, 2002) (Table 1). The values of Planavsky et al. (2010) are preferable, because they are corrected for silicic acid competition in phosphate binding to ferric oxide.”
BackgroundInfluential
Organic and mineral imprints in fossil photosynthetic mats of an E ast A ntarctic lake
Lepot, K., Compère, P., Gérard, E., Namsaraev, Z. B., Verleyen, E., Tavernier, I., Hodgson, D., Vyverman, W., Gilbert, B., Wilmotte, A., et al. (2014) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12096 · Cited by 46
“…in Antarctic mats need to cope with increased levels of UV and photosynthetically active radiation during summer, a situation that early cyanobacterial mats may have faced before the oxygenation of the atmosphere and ozone synthesis (Cockell & Raven, 2007) ca. 2.4 Gyrs ago (Bekker et al., 2004).”
BackgroundInfluential
Deciphering Primordial Cyanobacterial Genome Functions from Protein Network Analysis
Harel, A., Karkar, S., Cheng, S., Falkowski, P. G., & Bhattacharya, D. (2015) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.061 · Cited by 48
A template for an improved rock-based subdivision of the pre-Cryogenian timescale
Shields, G., Strachan, R. A., Porter, S. M., Halverson, G. P., Macdonald, F. A., Plumb, K. A., de Alvarenga, C. J. S., Banerjee, D. M., Bekker, A., Bleeker, W., et al. (2021) · Journal of the Geological Society · doi:10.1144/jgs2020-222 · Cited by 50
“…years has been presumed to begin when atmospheric oxygen had accumulated to sufficient levels to prevent the formation and/or preservation of mass-independent S-isotope fractionation (MIF-S) in the lower atmosphere and sedimentary rocks, respectively (Farquhar et al. 2000; Bekker et al. 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Oil and its biomarkers associated with the Palaeoproterozoic Oklo natural fission reactors, Gabon
Dutkiewicz, A., George, S. C., Mossman, D. J., Ridley, J. R., & Volk, H. (2007) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2007.06.010 · Cited by 48
Shallow water anoxia in the Mesoproterozoic ocean: Evidence from the Bashkir Meganticlinorium, Southern Urals
Doyle, K. A., Poulton, S. W., Newton, R. J., Podkovyrov, V. N., & Bekker, A. (2018) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2018.09.001 · Cited by 48
Self-citation
Planetary Environmental Signatures for Habitability and Life
Meadows, V. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74008-7_10 · Cited by 48
The recurrent assembly of C4 photosynthesis, an evolutionary tale
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“1; Bekker et al. 2004; Holland 2006; Farquhar et al. 2007).”
Quantification of atmospheric oxygen levels during the Paleoproterozoic using paleosol compositions and iron oxidation kinetics
Murakami, T., Sreenivas, B., Sharma, S. D., & Sugimori, H. (2011) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2011.04.023 · Cited by 49
Oxygen-Dependent Morphogenesis of Modern Clumped Photosynthetic Mats and Implications for the Archean Stromatolite Record
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“, [2,3]).”
Origin of red beds in the Paleoproterozoic Franceville Basin, Gabon, and implications for sandstone-hosted uranium mineralization
Bankole, O. M., Albani, A. E., Meunier, A., Rouxel, O. J., Gauthier-Lafaye, F., & Bekker, A. (2016) · American Journal of Science · doi:10.2475/09.2016.02 · Cited by 47
Self-citation
Modern weathering in outcrop samples versus ancient paleoredox information in drill core samples from a Mesoarchaean marine oxygen oasis in Pongola Supergroup, South Africa
Albut, G., Kamber, B. S., Brüske, A., Beukes, N. J., Smith, A. J. B., & Schoenberg, R. (2019) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2019.09.001 · Cited by 48
Self-citation
The record of impact processes on the early Earth: A review of the first 2.5 billion years
Koeberl, C. (2006) · Geological Society of America eBooks · doi:10.1130/2006.2405(01 · Cited by 50
Habitability: from stars to cells
Javaux, E., & Dehant, V. (2010) · The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review · doi:10.1007/s00159-010-0030-4 · Cited by 50
“The G.O.E. has been dated around 2.32 Ga based on sulfur isotopes data (Bekker et al. 2004) but some oxygen might have been produced earlier in the Paleoproterozoic (Anbar et al. 2007) or even in the Archean (see Holk et al. 2008; review in Martin et al. 2006b; Buick 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Co-Evolution of Atmospheres, Life, and Climate
Grenfell, J. L., Rauer, H., Selsis, F., Kaltenegger, L., Beichman, C., Danchi, W. C., Eiroa, C., Fridlund, M., Henning, T. K., Herbst, T., et al. (2010) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2009.0375 · Cited by 53
The Early Proterozoic Matachewan Large Igneous Province: Geochemistry, Petrogenesis, and Implications for Earth Evolution
Ciborowski, T. J. R., Kerr, A. C., Ernst, R. E., McDonald, I., Minifie, M. J., Harlan, S. S., & Millar, I. (2015) · Journal of Petrology · doi:10.1093/petrology/egv038 · Cited by 47
Marine cements reveal the structure of an anoxic, ferruginous Neoproterozoic ocean
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Chapter 10 Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic sedimentation and tectonics of the Singhbhum Craton, eastern India, and implications for global and craton-specific geological events
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Chromium isotope stratigraphy of Ediacaran cap dolostones, Doushantuo Formation, South China
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High Sulfur Isotope Fractionation Associated with Anaerobic Oxidation of Methane in a Low-Sulfate, Iron-Rich Environment
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Application of membrane inlet mass spectrometry to measure aquatic gross primary production by the18O in vitro method
Ferrón, S., del Valle, D. A., Björkman, K. M., Quay, P. D., Church, M. J., & Karl, D. M. (2016) · Limnology and Oceanography Methods · doi:10.1002/lom3.10116 · Cited by 46
Dating the Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth glaciations using contemporaneous subglacial hydrothermal systems
Zakharov, D., Bindeman, I. N., Slabunov, A. I., Ovtcharova, M., Coble, M. A., Serebryakov, N. S., & Schaltegger, U. (2017) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g38759.1 · Cited by 46
Oldest volcanic-hosted submarine iron ores in South China: Evidence from zircon U–Pb geochronology and geochemistry of the Paleoproterozoic Dahongshan iron deposit
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Petrographic and geochemical characterization of the Lower Transvaal Supergroup stromatolitic dolostones (Kanye Basin, Botswana)
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A Polyextreme Hydrothermal System Controlled by Iron: The Case of Dallol at the Afar Triangle
Kotopoulou, E., Delgado‐Huertas, A., Garcı́a-Ruiz, J. M., Dominguez-Vera, J. M., García, J. M. L., Guerra, I., & Rull, F. (2018) · ACS Earth and Space Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acsearthspacechem.8b00141 · Cited by 46
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Authors: Bekker, A., Holland, H. D., Wang, P.-L., Rumble, D., Stein, H. J., Hannah, J. L., Coetzee, L. L., & Beukes, N. J.
Affiliations: Harvard University (US)
Carnegie Institution for Science (US)
Colorado State University (US)
University of Johannesburg (ZA)
Corresponding author: Bekker, A.
ORCID: Bekker, A.
Wang, P.-L.
Hannah, J. L.
Beukes, N. J.
Venue: Nature
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2004-01
Volume: 427
Issue: 6970
Pages: 117-120
ISSN: 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
1476-4687
DOI: 10.1038/nature02260
OpenAlex: W2090027771
Cited by: 1,435
References: 43
Citations by year: 2026: 39 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 76 · 2020: 79 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 70 · 2014: 72 · 2013: 99 · 2012: 69
FWCI: 53.34
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Nature (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation
Topics: Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
Keywords: Great Oxidation, atmospheric oxygen rise, sulfur isotopes, mass-independent fractionation, oolites, Neoproterozoic, Precambrian geochemistry
MeSH terms: Atmosphere, Carbonates, Cold Climate, Geography, Ice, Iron, Isotopes, Oxygen, South Africa, Sulfides, Sulfur, Time Factors, Geologic Sediments

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