Cited by 702

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 13 of the 13 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Regulation of RAF protein kinases in ERK signalling

Lavoie, Hugo, Therrien, Marc·2015·Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology

Abstract

RAF family kinases were among the first oncoproteins to be described more than 30 years ago. They primarily act as signalling relays downstream of RAS, and their close ties to cancer have fuelled a large number of studies. However, we still lack a systems-level understanding of their regulation and mode of action. The recent discovery that the catalytic activity of RAF depends on an allosteric mechanism driven by kinase domain dimerization is providing a vital new piece of information towards a comprehensive model of RAF function. The fact that current RAF inhibitors unexpectedly induce ERK signalling by stimulating RAF dimerization also calls for a deeper structural characterization of this family of kinases.

Overview

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/nrm3979

Cites

13 of 13 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • BRAF and RAF fusion is a result of chromosomal rearrangement events and is detected in distinct cancer types.

    “BRAF and RAF fusion is a result of chromosomal rearrangement events and is detected in distinct cancer types [53].”

    From Hsa-mir-548 family expression in human reproductive tissues (2021) · cites this paper as [53]

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 235

  1. Matallanas, D. et al. Raf family kinases: old dogs have learned new tricks. Genes Cancer 2, 232–260 (2011). · DOI
  2. Rapp, U. R. et al. Structure and biological activity of v-raf, a unique oncogene transduced by a retrovirus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 80, 4218–4222 (1983). This paper reports the isolation of the v-raf oncogene, the founding event in the history of the study of RAF family proteins. · DOI
  3. Rapp, U. R. & Todaro, C. Generation of new mouse sarcoma viruses in cell culture. Science 201, 821–824 (1978). · DOI
  4. Jansen, H. W. et al. Homologous cell-derived oncogenes in avian carcinoma virus MH2 and murine sarcoma virus 3611. Nature 307, 281–284 (1984). This study is the first demonstration that v-raf and v-mil are retroviral oncogenes derived from homologous cellular proto-oncogenes. · DOI
  5. Kan, N. C., Flordellis, C. S., Mark, G. E., Duesberg, P. H. & Papas, T. S. A common onc gene sequence transduced by avian carcinoma virus MH2 and by murine sarcoma virus 3611. Science 223, 813–816 (1984). · DOI
  6. Sutrave, P. et al. Nucleotide sequence of avian retroviral oncogene v-mil: homologue of murine retroviral oncogene v-raf. Nature 309, 85–88 (1984). · DOI
  7. Moelling, K., Heimann, B., Beimling, P., Rapp, U. R. & Sander, T. Serine- and threonine-specific protein kinase activities of purified gag–mil and gag–raf proteins. Nature 312, 558–561 (1984). This study is a biochemical demonstration that v-raf and v-mil oncoproteins carry Ser/Thr kinase activity. · DOI
  8. Bonner, T. et al. The human homologs of the raf (mil) oncogene are located on human chromosomes 3 and 4. Science 223, 71–74 (1984). · DOI
  9. Ishikawa, F. et al. Activated c-raf gene in a rat hepatocellular carcinoma induced by 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 132, 186–192 (1985). · DOI
  10. Kozak, C., Gunnell, M. A. & Rapp, U. R. A new oncogene, c-raf, is located on mouse chromosome 6. J. Virol. 49, 297–299 (1984). · DOI
  11. Bonner, T. I. et al. Structure and biological activity of human homologs of the raf/mil oncogene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 5, 1400–1407 (1985). References 8–11 report the identification of the v-raf cellular homologue CRAF. · DOI
  12. Fukui, M., Yamamoto, T., Kawai, S., Mitsunobu, F. & Toyoshima, K. Molecular cloning and characterization of an activated human c-raf-1 gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 7, 1776–1781 (1987). · DOI
  13. Ishikawa, F., Takaku, F., Hayashi, K., Nagao, M. & Sugimura, T. Activation of rat c-raf during transfection of hepatocellular carcinoma DNA. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 83, 3209–3212 (1986). · DOI
  14. Molders, H. et al. Integration of transfected LTR sequences into the c-raf proto-oncogene: activation by promoter insertion. EMBO J. 4, 693–698 (1985). · DOI
  15. Stanton, V. P. Jr & Cooper, G. M. Activation of human raf transforming genes by deletion of normal amino-terminal coding sequences. Mol. Cell. Biol. 7, 1171–1179 (1987). · DOI
  16. Schultz, A. M., Copeland, T., Oroszlan, S. & Rapp, U. R. Identification and characterization of c-raf phosphoproteins in transformed murine cells. Oncogene 2, 187–193 (1988).
  17. Stanton, V. P. Jr., Nichols, D. W., Laudano, A. P. & Cooper, G. M. Definition of the human raf amino-terminal regulatory region by deletion mutagenesis. Mol. Cell. Biol. 9, 639–647 (1989). · DOI
  18. Ishikawa, F. et al. Identification of a transforming activity suppressing sequence in the c-raf oncogene. Oncogene 3, 653–658 (1988).
  19. Heidecker, G. et al. Mutational activation of c-raf-1 and definition of the minimal transforming sequence. Mol. Cell. Biol. 10, 2503–2512 (1990). · DOI
  20. Bruder, J. T., Heidecker, G. & Rapp, U. R. Serum-, TPA-, and Ras-induced expression from Ap-1/Ets-driven promoters requires Raf-1 kinase. Genes Dev. 6, 545–556 (1992). · DOI
  21. Huebner, K. et al. Actively transcribed genes in the raf oncogene group, located on the X chromosome in mouse and human. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 83, 3934–3938 (1986). · DOI
  22. Huleihel, M. et al. Characterization of murine A-raf, a new oncogene related to the v-raf oncogene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 6, 2655–2662 (1986). · DOI
  23. Mark, G. E., Seeley, T. W., Shows, T. B. & Mountz, J. D. pks, a raf-related sequence in humans. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 83, 6312–6316 (1986). · DOI
  24. Ishikawa, F., Takaku, F., Nagao, M. & Sugimura, T. The complete primary structure of the rat A-raf cDNA coding region: conservation of the putative regulatory regions present in rat c-raf. Oncogene Res. 1, 243–253 (1987).
  25. Ikawa, S. et al. B-raf, a new member of the raf family, is activated by DNA rearrangement. Mol. Cell. Biol. 8, 2651–2654 (1988). · DOI
  26. Beck, T. W., Huleihel, M., Gunnell, M., Bonner, T. I. & Rapp, U. R. The complete coding sequence of the human A-raf-1 oncogene and transforming activity of a human A-raf carrying retrovirus. Nucleic Acids Res. 15, 595–609 (1987). · DOI
  27. Chuang, E. et al. Critical binding and regulatory interactions between Ras and Raf occur through a small, stable N-terminal domain of Raf and specific Ras effector residues. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14, 5318–5325 (1994). · DOI
  28. Smith, M. R., DeGudicibus, S. J. & Stacey, D. W. Requirement for c-ras proteins during viral oncogene transformation. Nature 320, 540–543 (1986). · DOI
  29. Mark, G. E., MacIntyre, R. J., Digan, M. E., Ambrosio, L. & Perrimon, N. Drosophila melanogaster homologs of the raf oncogene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 7, 2134–2140 (1987). · DOI
  30. Nishida, Y. et al. Proliferation of both somatic and germ cells is affected in the Drosophila mutants of raf proto-oncogene. EMBO J. 7, 775–781 (1988). · DOI
  31. Ambrosio, L., Mahowald, A. P. & Perrimon, N. Requirement of the Drosophila raf homologue for torso function. Nature 342, 288–291 (1989). · DOI
  32. Han, M., Golden, A., Han, Y. & Sternberg, P. W. C. elegans lin-45 raf gene participates in let-60 ras-stimulated vulval differentiation. Nature 363, 133–140 (1993). References 31 and 32 constitute the earliest genetic evidence that RAF acts downstream of an RTK and RAS in C. elegans and D. melanogaster. · DOI
  33. Ray, L. B. & Sturgill, T. W. Rapid stimulation by insulin of a serine/threonine kinase in 3T3-L1 adipocytes that phosphorylates microtubule-associated protein 2 in vitro. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 84, 1502–1506 (1987). · DOI
  34. Boulton, T. G. et al. An insulin-stimulated protein kinase similar to yeast kinases involved in cell cycle control. Science 249, 64–67 (1990). · DOI
  35. Rossomando, A. J., Payne, D. M., Weber, M. J. & Sturgill, T. W. Evidence that pp42, a major tyrosine kinase target protein, is a mitogen-activated serine/threonine protein kinase. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 86, 6940–6943 (1989). · DOI
  36. Boulton, T. G. et al. ERKs: a family of protein-serine/threonine kinases that are activated and tyrosine phosphorylated in response to insulin and NGF. Cell 65, 663–675 (1991). · DOI
  37. Crews, C. M. & Erikson, R. L. Purification of a murine protein-tyrosine/threonine kinase that phosphorylates and activates the Erk-1 gene product: relationship to the fission yeast byr1 gene product. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 89, 8205–8209 (1992). · DOI
  38. Yoon, S. & Seger, R. The extracellular signal-regulated kinase: multiple substrates regulate diverse cellular functions. Growth Factors 24, 21–44 (2006). · DOI
  39. Kyriakis, J. M. et al. Raf-1 activates MAP kinase-kinase. Nature 358, 417–421 (1992). This study is the first biochemical demonstration of RAF catalytic activity towards the activation segment of MEK. · DOI
  40. Kolch, W., Heidecker, G., Lloyd, P. & Rapp, U. R. Raf-1 protein kinase is required for growth of induced NIH/3T3 cells. Nature 349, 426–428 (1991). · DOI
  41. Leevers, S. J. & Marshall, C. J. Activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, ERK2, by p21ras oncoprotein. EMBO J. 11, 569–574 (1992). · DOI
  42. Zhang, X. F. et al. Normal and oncogenic p21ras proteins bind to the amino-terminal regulatory domain of c-Raf-1. Nature 364, 308–313 (1993). · DOI
  43. Van Aelst, L., Barr, M., Marcus, S., Polverino, A. & Wigler, M. Complex formation between RAS and RAF and other protein kinases. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 90, 6213–6217 (1993). · DOI
  44. Vojtek, A. B., Hollenberg, S. M. & Cooper, J. A. Mammalian Ras interacts directly with the serine/threonine kinase Raf. Cell 74, 205–214 (1993). · DOI
  45. Moodie, S. A., Willumsen, B. M., Weber, M. J. & Wolfman, A. Complexes of Ras. GTP with Raf-1 and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase. Science 260, 1658–1661 (1993). References 43–46 are the first descriptions of a direct interaction between RAF and GTP-loaded RAS. · DOI
  46. Dent, P., Reardon, D. B., Morrison, D. K. & Sturgill, T. W. Regulation of Raf-1 and Raf-1 mutants by Ras-dependent and Ras-independent mechanisms in vitro. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15, 4125–4135 (1995). · DOI
  47. Fantl, W. J. et al. Activation of Raf-1 by 14-3-3 proteins. Nature 371, 612–614 (1994). · DOI
  48. Freed, E., Symons, M., Macdonald, S. G., McCormick, F. & Ruggieri, R. Binding of 14-3-3 proteins to the protein kinase Raf and effects on its activation. Science 265, 1713–1716 (1994). · DOI
  49. Fu, H. et al. Interaction of the protein kinase Raf-1 with 14-3-3 proteins. Science 266, 126–129 (1994). · DOI
  50. Irie, K. et al. Stimulatory effects of yeast and mammalian 14-3-3 proteins on the Raf protein kinase. Science 265, 1716–1719 (1994). References 48–51 identify 14-3-3 proteins as key RAF-binding proteins controlling RAF activity. · DOI
  51. Stancato, L. F. et al. Raf exists in a native heterocomplex with hsp90 and p50 that can be reconstituted in a cell-free system. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 21711–21716 (1993). · DOI
  52. Kornfeld, K., Hom, D. B. & Horvitz, H. R. The ksr-1 gene encodes a novel protein kinase involved in Ras-mediated signaling in C. elegans. Cell 83, 903–913 (1995). · DOI
  53. Sundaram, M. & Han, M. The C. elegans ksr-1 gene encodes a novel Raf-related kinase involved in Ras-mediated signal transduction. Cell 83, 889–901 (1995). · DOI
  54. Therrien, M. et al. KSR, a novel protein kinase required for RAS signal transduction. Cell 83, 879–888 (1995). References 53–55 report the identification of KSR from genetic screens in C. elegans and D. melanogaster. · DOI
  55. Channavajhala, P. L. et al. Identification of a novel human kinase supporter of Ras (hKSR-2) that functions as a negative regulator of Cot (Tpl2) signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 47089–47097 (2003). · DOI
  56. Zhou, M., Horita, D. A., Waugh, D. S., Byrd, R. A. & Morrison, D. K. Solution structure and functional analysis of the cysteine-rich C1 domain of kinase suppressor of Ras (KSR). J. Mol. Biol. 315, 435–446 (2002). · DOI
  57. Rajakulendran, T., Sahmi, M., Lefrancois, M., Sicheri, F. & Therrien, M. A dimerization-dependent mechanism drives RAF catalytic activation. Nature 461, 542–545 (2009). Structural information coupled with functional assays led to the identification of a side-to-side interface within RAF kinase domains that enables dimerization and catalytic activation. · DOI
  58. Nguyen, A. et al. Kinase suppressor of Ras (KSR) is a scaffold which facilitates mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in vivo. Mol. Cell. Biol. 22, 3035–3045 (2002). · DOI
  59. Stewart, S. et al. Kinase suppressor of Ras forms a multiprotein signaling complex and modulates MEK localization. Mol. Cell. Biol. 19, 5523–5534 (1999). · DOI
  60. Brennan, D. F. et al. A Raf-induced allosteric transition of KSR stimulates phosphorylation of MEK. Nature 472, 366–369 (2011). This study describes the KSR–MEK protein–protein interaction surface. · DOI
  61. Goettel, J. A. et al. KSR1 is a functional protein kinase capable of serine autophosphorylation and direct phosphorylation of MEK1. Exp. Cell Res. 317, 452–463 (2011). · DOI
  62. Hu, J. et al. Mutation that blocks ATP binding creates a pseudokinase stabilizing the scaffolding function of kinase suppressor of Ras, CRAF and BRAF. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 6067–6072 (2011). · DOI
  63. Zhang, Y. et al. Kinase suppressor of Ras is ceramide-activated protein kinase. Cell 89, 63–72 (1997). · DOI
  64. Michaud, N. R. et al. KSR stimulates Raf-1 activity in a kinase-independent manner. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 94, 12792–12796 (1997). · DOI
  65. Chong, H. & Guan, K. L. Regulation of Raf through phosphorylation and N terminus–C terminus interaction. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 36269–36276 (2003). · DOI
  66. Cutler, R. E. Jr., Stephens, R. M., Saracino, M. R. & Morrison, D. K. Autoregulation of the Raf-1 serine/threonine kinase. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 95, 9214–9219 (1998). · DOI
  67. Tran, N. H. & Frost, J. A. Phosphorylation of Raf-1 by p21-activated kinase 1 and Src regulates Raf-1 autoinhibition. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 11221–11226 (2003). · DOI
  68. Tran, N. H., Wu, X. & Frost, J. A. B-Raf and Raf-1 are regulated by distinct autoregulatory mechanisms. J. Biol. Chem. 280, 16244–16253 (2005). · DOI
  69. Cook, S. J. & McCormick, F. Inhibition by cAMP of Ras-dependent activation of Raf. Science 262, 1069–1072 (1993). · DOI
  70. Wu, J. et al. Inhibition of the EGF-activated MAP kinase signaling pathway by adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate. Science 262, 1065–1069 (1993). · DOI
  71. Dhillon, A. S. et al. Cyclic AMP-dependent kinase regulates Raf-1 kinase mainly by phosphorylation of serine 259. Mol. Cell. Biol. 22, 3237–3246 (2002). · DOI
  72. Zimmermann, S. & Moelling, K. Phosphorylation and regulation of Raf by Akt (protein kinase B). Science 286, 1741–1744 (1999). · DOI
  73. Rommel, C. et al. Differentiation stage-specific inhibition of the Raf–MEK–ERK pathway by Akt. Science 286, 1738–1741 (1999). · DOI
  74. Romano, D. et al. Protein interaction switches coordinate Raf-1 and MST2/Hippo signalling. Nature Cell Biol. 16, 673–684 (2014). · DOI
  75. Morrison, D. K., Heidecker, G., Rapp, U. R. & Copeland, T. D. Identification of the major phosphorylation sites of the Raf-1 kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 17309–17316 (1993). · DOI
  76. Dhillon, A. S., Meikle, S., Yazici, Z., Eulitz, M. & Kolch, W. Regulation of Raf-1 activation and signalling by dephosphorylation. EMBO J. 21, 64–71 (2002). · DOI
  77. Light, Y., Paterson, H. & Marais, R. 14-3-3 antagonizes Ras-mediated Raf-1 recruitment to the plasma membrane to maintain signaling fidelity. Mol. Cell. Biol. 22, 4984–4996 (2002). · DOI
  78. Michaud, N. R., Fabian, J. R., Mathes, K. D. & Morrison, D. K. 14-3-3 is not essential for Raf-1 function: identification of Raf-1 proteins that are biologically activated in a 14-3-3- and Ras-independent manner. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15, 3390–3397 (1995). · DOI
  79. Rommel, C. et al. Activated Ras displaces 14-3-3 protein from the amino terminus of c-Raf-1. Oncogene 12, 609–619 (1996).
  80. Muslin, A. J., Tanner, J. W., Allen, P. M. & Shaw, A. S. Interaction of 14-3-3 with signaling proteins is mediated by the recognition of phosphoserine. Cell 84, 889–897 (1996). · DOI
  81. Tzivion, G., Luo, Z. & Avruch, J. A dimeric 14-3-3 protein is an essential cofactor for Raf kinase activity. Nature 394, 88–92 (1998). · DOI
  82. Dumaz, N. & Marais, R. Protein kinase A blocks Raf-1 activity by stimulating 14-3-3 binding and blocking Raf-1 interaction with Ras. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 29819–29823 (2003). · DOI
  83. Molzan, M. & Ottmann, C. Synergistic binding of the phosphorylated S233- and S259-binding sites of C-RAF to one 14-3-3ζ dimer. J. Mol. Biol. 423, 486–495 (2012). · DOI
  84. Ahearn, I. M., Haigis, K., Bar-Sagi, D. & Philips, M. R. Regulating the regulator: post-translational modification of RAS. Nature Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 13, 39–51 (2012). · DOI
  85. Nassar, N. et al. The 2.2Å crystal structure of the Ras-binding domain of the serine/threonine kinase c-Raf1 in complex with Rap1A and a GTP analogue. Nature 375, 554–560 (1995). This study reports the first crystal structure of the RAS-binding domain of RAF in complex with an activated RAS family GTPase. · DOI
  86. Huang, L., Hofer, F., Martin, G. S. & Kim, S. H. Structural basis for the interaction of Ras with RalGDS. Nature Struct. Biol. 5, 422–426 (1998). · DOI
  87. Pacold, M. E. et al. Crystal structure and functional analysis of Ras binding to its effector phosphoinositide 3-kinase γ. Cell 103, 931–943 (2000). · DOI
  88. Fabian, J. R., Vojtek, A. B., Cooper, J. A. & Morrison, D. K. A single amino acid change in Raf-1 inhibits Ras binding and alters Raf-1 function. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91, 5982–5986 (1994). · DOI
  89. Baljuls, A. et al. The tumor suppressor DiRas3 forms a complex with H-Ras and C-RAF proteins and regulates localization, dimerization, and kinase activity of C-RAF. J. Biol. Chem. 287, 23128–23140 (2012). · DOI
  90. Im, E. et al. Rheb is in a high activation state and inhibits B-Raf kinase in mammalian cells. Oncogene 21, 6356–6365 (2002). · DOI
  91. Vossler, M. R. et al. cAMP activates MAP kinase and Elk-1 through a B-Raf- and Rap1-dependent pathway. Cell 89, 73–82 (1997). · DOI
  92. Leonard, T. A. & Hurley, J. H. Regulation of protein kinases by lipids. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 21, 785–791 (2011). · DOI
  93. Ghosh, S. et al. The cysteine-rich region of raf-1 kinase contains zinc, translocates to liposomes, and is adjacent to a segment that binds GTP-ras. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 10000–10007 (1994). · DOI
  94. Ghosh, S., Strum, J. C., Sciorra, V. A., Daniel, L. & Bell, R. M. Raf-1 kinase possesses distinct binding domains for phosphatidylserine and phosphatidic acid. Phosphatidic acid regulates the translocation of Raf-1 in 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-stimulated Madin–Darby canine kidney cells. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 8472–8480 (1996). · DOI
  95. Roy, S., Lane, A., Yan, J., McPherson, R. & Hancock, J. F. Activity of plasma membrane-recruited Raf-1 is regulated by Ras via the Raf zinc finger. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 20139–20145 (1997). · DOI
  96. Bondeva, T., Balla, A., Varnai, P. & Balla, T. Structural determinants of Ras–Raf interaction analyzed in live cells. Mol. Biol. Cell 13, 2323–2333 (2002). · DOI
  97. Fischer, A. et al. B- and C-RAF display essential differences in their binding to Ras: the isotype-specific N terminus of B-RAF facilitates Ras binding. J. Biol. Chem. 282, 26503–26516 (2007). · DOI
  98. Luo, Z., Diaz, B., Marshall, M. S. & Avruch, J. An intact Raf zinc finger is required for optimal binding to processed Ras and for ras-dependent Raf activation in situ. Mol. Cell. Biol. 17, 46–53 (1997). · DOI
  99. Williams, J. G. et al. Elucidation of binding determinants and functional consequences of Ras/Raf-cysteine-rich domain interactions. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 22172–22179 (2000). · DOI
  100. Winkler, D. G. et al. Identification of residues in the cysteine-rich domain of Raf-1 that control Ras binding and Raf-1 activity. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 21578–21584 (1998). · DOI
  101. Thapar, R., Williams, J. G. & Campbell, S. L. NMR characterization of full-length farnesylated and non-farnesylated H-Ras and its implications for Raf activation. J. Mol. Biol. 343, 1391–1408 (2004). · DOI
  102. Abraham, D. et al. Raf-1-associated protein phosphatase 2A as a positive regulator of kinase activation. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 22300–22304 (2000). · DOI
  103. Jaumot, M. & Hancock, J. F. Protein phosphatases 1 and 2A promote Raf-1 activation by regulating 14-3-3 interactions. Oncogene 20, 3949–3958 (2001). · DOI
  104. Farrar, M. A., Alberol-Ila, J. & Perlmutter, R. M. Activation of the Raf-1 kinase cascade by coumermycin-induced dimerization. Nature 383, 178–181 (1996). · DOI
  105. Luo, Z. et al. Oligomerization activates c-Raf-1 through a Ras-dependent mechanism. Nature 383, 181–185 (1996). · DOI
  106. Weber, C. K., Slupsky, J. R., Kalmes, H. A. & Rapp, U. R. Active RAS induces heterodimerization of CRAF and BRAF. Cancer Res. 61, 3595–3598 (2001).
  107. Rushworth, L. K., Hindley, A. D., O'Neill, E. & Kolch, W. Regulation and role of Raf-1/B-Raf heterodimerization. Mol. Cell. Biol. 26, 2262–2272 (2006). References 112 and 113 show that physiological RAF dimerization occurs upon RAS signalling and that 14-3-3 participates in this event. · DOI
  108. Wan, P. T. et al. Mechanism of activation of the RAF–ERK signaling pathway by oncogenic mutations of B-RAF. Cell 116, 855–867 (2004). · DOI
  109. Garnett, M. J., Rana, S., Paterson, H., Barford, D. & Marais, R. Wild-type and mutant B-RAF activate C-RAF through distinct mechanisms involving heterodimerization. Mol. Cell 20, 963–969 (2005). · DOI
  110. Heidorn, S. J. et al. Kinase-dead BRAF and oncogenic RAS cooperate to drive tumor progression through CRAF. Cell 140, 209–221 (2010). References 114–116 demonstrate the enhanced ability of kinase-impaired BRAF to form dimers, transactivate CRAF and induce tumorigenesis in collaboration with activated RAS. Reference 114 also reports the first crystal structure of the BRAF kinase domain. · DOI
  111. Douziech, M., Sahmi, M., Laberge, G. & Therrien, M. A. KSR/CNK complex mediated by HYP, a novel SAM domain-containing protein, regulates RAS-dependent RAF activation in Drosophila. Genes Dev. 20, 807–819 (2006). · DOI
  112. Taylor, S. S. & Kornev, A. P. Protein kinases: evolution of dynamic regulatory proteins. Trends Biochem. Sci. 36, 65–77 (2011). · DOI
  113. Kornev, A. P., Haste, N. M., Taylor, S. S. & Eyck, L. F. Surface comparison of active and inactive protein kinases identifies a conserved activation mechanism. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 17783–17788 (2006). This paper reports the delineation of two hydrophobic spines in kinase domains as central elements controlling the transition from the inactive to active state. · DOI
  114. Shaw, A. S., Kornev, A. P., Hu, J., Ahuja, L. G. & Taylor, S. S. Kinases and pseudokinases: lessons from RAF. Mol. Cell. Biol. 34, 1538–1546 (2014). · DOI
  115. Lavoie, H. et al. Inhibitors that stabilize a closed RAF kinase domain conformation induce dimerization. Nature Chem. Biol. 9, 428–436 (2013). This study shows that kinase domain closure and hydrophobic spine alignment are contributing factors in RAF dimerization induced by small-molecule inhibitors. · DOI
  116. Thevakumaran, N. et al. Crystal structure of a BRAF kinase domain monomer explains basis for allosteric regulation. Nature Struct. Mol. Biol. 22, 37–43 (2015). · DOI
  117. Roring, M. et al. Distinct requirement for an intact dimer interface in wild-type, V600E and kinase-dead B-Raf signalling. EMBO J. 31, 2629–2647 (2012). · DOI
  118. Freeman, A. K., Ritt, D. A. & Morrison, D. K. Effects of raf dimerization and its inhibition on normal and disease-associated raf signaling. Mol. Cell 49, 751–758 (2013). · DOI
  119. Plowman, S. J., Muncke, C., Parton, R. G. & Hancock, J. F. H-ras, K-ras, and inner plasma membrane raft proteins operate in nanoclusters with differential dependence on the actin cytoskeleton. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102, 15500–15505 (2005). · DOI
  120. Tian, T. et al. Plasma membrane nanoswitches generate high-fidelity Ras signal transduction. Nature Cell Biol. 9, 905–914 (2007). · DOI
  121. Dementiev, A. K-Ras4B lipoprotein synthesis: biochemical characterization, functional properties, and dimer formation. Protein Expr Purif. 84, 86–93 (2012). · DOI
  122. Guldenhaupt, J. et al. N-Ras forms dimers at POPC membranes. Biophys. J. 103, 1585–1593 (2012). · DOI
  123. Lin, W. C. et al. H-Ras forms dimers on membrane surfaces via a protein-protein interface. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 2996–3001 (2014). · DOI
  124. Poulikakos, P. I., Zhang, C., Bollag, G., Shokat, K. M. & Rosen, N. RAF inhibitors transactivate RAF dimers and ERK signalling in cells with wild-type BRAF. Nature 464, 427–430 (2010). · DOI
  125. Hatzivassiliou, G. et al. RAF inhibitors prime wild-type RAF to activate the MAPK pathway and enhance growth. Nature 464, 431–435 (2010). References 116, 131 and 132 demonstrate the paradoxical ability of RAF inhibitors to induce RAF dimerization and ERK signalling. · DOI
  126. Cho, K. J. et al. Raf inhibitors target ras spatiotemporal dynamics. Curr. Biol. 22, 945–955 (2012). · DOI
  127. Ghosh, S., Moore, S., Bell, R. M. & Dush, M. Functional analysis of a phosphatidic acid binding domain in human Raf-1 kinase: mutations in the phosphatidate binding domain lead to tail and trunk abnormalities in developing zebrafish embryos. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 45690–45696 (2003). · DOI
  128. Hornbeck, P. V. et al. PhosphoSitePlus: a comprehensive resource for investigating the structure and function of experimentally determined post-translational modifications in man and mouse. Nucleic Acids Res. 40, D261–D270 (2012). · DOI
  129. Marais, R., Light, Y., Paterson, H. F. & Marshall, C. J. Ras recruits Raf-1 to the plasma membrane for activation by tyrosine phosphorylation. EMBO J. 14, 3136–3145 (1995). · DOI
  130. Diaz, B. et al. Phosphorylation of Raf-1 serine 338-serine 339 is an essential regulatory event for Ras-dependent activation and biological signaling. Mol. Cell. Biol. 17, 4509–4516 (1997). · DOI
  131. Marais, R., Light, Y., Paterson, H. F., Mason, C. S. & Marshall, C. J. Differential regulation of Raf-1, A-Raf, and B-Raf by oncogenic ras and tyrosine kinases. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 4378–4383 (1997). · DOI
  132. Mason, C. S. et al. Serine and tyrosine phosphorylations cooperate in Raf-1, but not B-Raf activation. EMBO J. 18, 2137–2148 (1999). · DOI
  133. Williams, N. G., Roberts, T. M. & Li, P. Both p21ras and pp60v-src are required, but neither alone is sufficient, to activate the Raf-1 kinase. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 89, 2922–2926 (1992). · DOI
  134. Thompson, P. A., Ledbetter, J. A., Rapp, U. R. & Bolen, J. B. The Raf-1 serine-threonine kinase is a substrate for the p56lck protein tyrosine kinase in human T cells. Cell Growth Differ. 2, 609–617 (1991).
  135. Fabian, J. R., Daar, I. O. & Morrison, D. K. Critical tyrosine residues regulate the enzymatic and biological activity of Raf-1 kinase. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13, 7170–7179 (1993). · DOI
  136. Cleghon, V. & Morrison, D. K. Raf-1 interacts with Fyn and Src in a non-phosphotyrosine-dependent manner. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 17749–17755 (1994). · DOI
  137. Chaudhary, A. et al. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulates Raf1 through Pak phosphorylation of serine 338. Curr. Biol. 10, 551–554 (2000). · DOI
  138. King, A. J. et al. The protein kinase Pak3 positively regulates Raf-1 activity through phosphorylation of serine 338. Nature 396, 180–183 (1998). · DOI
  139. Sun, H., King, A. J., Diaz, H. B. & Marshall, M. S. Regulation of the protein kinase Raf-1 by oncogenic Ras through phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Cdc42/Rac and Pak. Curr. Biol. 10, 281–284 (2000). · DOI
  140. Chiloeches, A., Mason, C. S. & Marais, R. S338 phosphorylation of Raf-1 is independent of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and Pak3. Mol. Cell. Biol. 21, 2423–2434 (2001). · DOI
  141. Ritt, D. A. et al. CK2 Is a component of the KSR1 scaffold complex that contributes to Raf kinase activation. Curr. Biol. 17, 179–184 (2007). · DOI
  142. Hu, J. et al. Allosteric activation of functionally asymmetric RAF kinase dimers. Cell 154, 1036–1046 (2013). This study reports that the charge status of the negatively charged region dictates an asymmetry in the transactivation process within RAF dimers. · DOI
  143. Baljuls, A. et al. Positive regulation of A-RAF by phosphorylation of isoform-specific hinge segment and identification of novel phosphorylation sites. J. Biol. Chem. 283, 27239–27254 (2008). · DOI
  144. Zhang, B. H. & Guan, K. L. Activation of B-Raf kinase requires phosphorylation of the conserved residues Thr598 and Ser601. EMBO J. 19, 5429–5439 (2000). · DOI
  145. Chong, H., Lee, J. & Guan, K. L. Positive and negative regulation of Raf kinase activity and function by phosphorylation. EMBO J. 20, 3716–3727 (2001). · DOI
  146. Dhillon, A. S. et al. The C-terminus of Raf-1 acts as a 14-3-3-dependent activation switch. Cell Signal 21, 1645–1651 (2009). · DOI
  147. Mischak, H. et al. Negative regulation of Raf-1 by phosphorylation of serine 621. Mol. Cell. Biol. 16, 5409–5418 (1996). · DOI
  148. Shen, C. H. et al. Phosphorylation of BRAF by AMPK impairs BRAF–KSR1 association and cell proliferation. Mol. Cell 52, 161–172 (2013). · DOI
  149. Noble, C. et al. CRAF autophosphorylation of serine 621 is required to prevent its proteasome-mediated degradation. Mol. Cell 31, 862–872 (2008). · DOI
  150. Sprenkle, A. B., Davies, S. P., Carling, D., Hardie, D. G. & Sturgill, T. W. Identification of Raf-1 Ser621 kinase activity from NIH 3T3 cells as AMP-activated protein kinase. FEBS Lett. 403, 254–258 (1997). · DOI
  151. Yu, W., Fantl, W. J., Harrowe, G. & Williams, L. T. Regulation of the MAP kinase pathway by mammalian Ksr through direct interaction with MEK and ERK. Curr. Biol. 8, 56–64 (1998). · DOI
  152. Therrien, M., Wong, A. M. & Rubin, G. M. CNK, a RAF-binding multidomain protein required for RAS signaling. Cell 95, 343–353 (1998). · DOI
  153. Sieburth, D. S., Sun, Q. & Han, M. SUR-8, a conserved Ras-binding protein with leucine-rich repeats, positively regulates Ras-mediated signaling in C. elegans. Cell 94, 119–130 (1998). · DOI · Paper page
  154. Luttrell, L. M. et al. Activation and targeting of extracellular signal-regulated kinases by β-arrestin scaffolds. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 2449–2454 (2001). · DOI
  155. Ishibe, S., Joly, D., Zhu, X. & Cantley, L. G. Phosphorylation-dependent paxillin–ERK association mediates hepatocyte growth factor-stimulated epithelial morphogenesis. Mol. Cell 12, 1275–1285 (2003). · DOI
  156. Vomastek, T. et al. Modular construction of a signaling scaffold: MORG1 interacts with components of the ERK cascade and links ERK signaling to specific agonists. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 6981–6986 (2004). · DOI
  157. Smith, F. D. et al. AKAP-Lbc enhances cyclic AMP control of the ERK1/2 cascade. Nature Cell Biol. 12, 1242–1249 (2010). · DOI
  158. Ren, J. G., Li, Z. & Sacks, D. B. IQGAP1 modulates activation of B-Raf. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 10465–10469 (2007). · DOI
  159. Kolch, W. Coordinating ERK/MAPK signalling through scaffolds and inhibitors. Nature Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 6, 827–837 (2005). · DOI
  160. Good, M., Tang, G., Singleton, J., Remenyi, A. & Lim, W. A. The Ste5 scaffold directs mating signaling by catalytically unlocking the Fus3 MAP kinase for activation. Cell 136, 1085–1097 (2009). · DOI
  161. Kortum, R. L. & Lewis, R. E. The molecular scaffold KSR1 regulates the proliferative and oncogenic potential of cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 24, 4407–4416 (2004). · DOI
  162. Kortum, R. L. et al. The molecular scaffold kinase suppressor of Ras 1 is a modifier of RasV12-induced and replicative senescence. Mol. Cell. Biol. 26, 2202–2214 (2006). · DOI
  163. Muller, J., Ory, S., Copeland, T., Piwnica-Worms, H. & Morrison, D. K. C-TAK1 regulates Ras signaling by phosphorylating the MAPK scaffold, KSR1. Mol. Cell 8, 983–993 (2001). · DOI
  164. Cacace, A. M. et al. Identification of constitutive and ras-inducible phosphorylation sites of KSR: implications for 14-3-3 binding, mitogen-activated protein kinase binding, and KSR overexpression. Mol. Cell. Biol. 19, 229–240 (1999). · DOI
  165. McKay, M. M., Ritt, D. A. & Morrison, D. K. RAF inhibitor-induced KSR1/B-RAF binding and its effects on ERK cascade signaling. Curr. Biol. 21, 563–568 (2011). · DOI
  166. Dougherty, M. K. et al. KSR2 is a calcineurin substrate that promotes ERK cascade activation in response to calcium signals. Mol. Cell 34, 652–662 (2009). · DOI
  167. Haling, J. R. et al. Structure of the BRAF–MEK complex reveals a kinase activity independent role for BRAF in MAPK signaling. Cancer Cell 26, 402–413 (2014). This paper describes the first crystal structure of a BRAF–MEK1 complex. · DOI
  168. Dar, A. C., Dever, T. E. & Sicheri, F. Higher-order substrate recognition of eIF2α by the RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR. Cell 122, 887–900 (2005). · DOI
  169. von Kriegsheim, A., Pitt, A., Grindlay, G. J., Kolch, W. & Dhillon, A. S. Regulation of the Raf–MEK–ERK pathway by protein phosphatase 5. Nature Cell Biol. 8, 1011–1016 (2006). · DOI
  170. Dougherty, M. K. et al. Regulation of Raf-1 by direct feedback phosphorylation. Mol. Cell 17, 215–224 (2005). · DOI
  171. Ritt, D. A., Monson, D. M., Specht, S. I. & Morrison, D. K. Impact of feedback phosphorylation and Raf heterodimerization on normal and mutant B-Raf signaling. Mol. Cell. Biol. 30, 806–819 (2010). References 179 and 180 identify and validate ERK-dependent negative feedback phosphorylation sites on BRAF and CRAF. These events are shown to impair RAF dimerization and interaction with activated RAS. · DOI
  172. Fukushima, T. et al. BRAF mutations in papillary carcinomas of the thyroid. Oncogene 22, 6455–6457 (2003). · DOI
  173. Forbes, S. A. et al. COSMIC: mining complete cancer genomes in the catalogue of somatic mutations in cancer. Nucleic Acids Res. 39, D945–D950 (2011). · DOI · Paper page
  174. Rodriguez-Viciana, P. et al. Germline mutations in genes within the MAPK pathway cause cardio-facio-cutaneous syndrome. Science 311, 1287–1290 (2006). · DOI
  175. Niihori, T. et al. Germline KRAS and BRAF mutations in cardio-facio-cutaneous syndrome. Nature Genet. 38, 294–296 (2006). · DOI
  176. Pandit, B. et al. Gain-of-function RAF1 mutations cause Noonan and LEOPARD syndromes with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Nature Genet. 39, 1007–1012 (2007). · DOI
  177. Razzaque, M. A. et al. Germline gain-of-function mutations in RAF1 cause Noonan syndrome. Nature Genet. 39, 1013–1017 (2007). References 184–187 show that de novo gain-of-function RAF mutations are found in patients with cardio-facio-cutaneous, Noonan and LEOPARD syndromes. · DOI
  178. Rauen, K. A. The RASopathies. Annu. Rev. Genom. Hum. Genet. 14, 355–369 (2013). · DOI
  179. Jones, D. T. et al. Tandem duplication producing a novel oncogenic BRAF fusion gene defines the majority of pilocytic astrocytomas. Cancer Res. 68, 8673–8677 (2008). · DOI
  180. Cin, H. et al. Oncogenic FAM131B–BRAF fusion resulting from 7q34 deletion comprises an alternative mechanism of MAPK pathway activation in pilocytic astrocytoma. Acta Neuropathol. 121, 763–774 (2011). · DOI
  181. Palanisamy, N. et al. Rearrangements of the RAF kinase pathway in prostate cancer, gastric cancer and melanoma. Nature Med. 16, 793–798 (2010). · DOI
  182. Ciampi, R. et al. Oncogenic AKAP9–BRAF fusion is a novel mechanism of MAPK pathway activation in thyroid cancer. J. Clin. Invest. 115, 94–101 (2005). · DOI
  183. Stransky, N., Cerami, E., Schalm, S., Kim, J. L. & Lengauer, C. The landscape of kinase fusions in cancer. Nature Commun. 5, 4846 (2014). · DOI · Paper page
  184. Molzan, M. et al. Impaired binding of 14-3-3 to C-RAF in Noonan syndrome suggests new approaches in diseases with increased Ras signaling. Mol. Cell. Biol. 30, 4698–4711 (2010). · DOI
  185. Wu, X. et al. Increased BRAF heterodimerization is the common pathogenic mechanism for noonan syndrome-associated RAF1 mutants. Mol. Cell. Biol. 32, 3872–3890 (2012). · DOI
  186. Wang, X. & Kim, J. Conformation-specific effects of Raf kinase inhibitors. J. Med. Chem. 55, 7332–7341 (2012). · DOI
  187. Corcoran, R. B. et al. BRAF gene amplification can promote acquired resistance to MEK inhibitors in cancer cells harboring the BRAFV600E mutation. Sci. Signal. 3, ra84 (2010). · DOI · Paper page
  188. Nazarian, R. et al. Melanomas acquire resistance to B-RAFV600E inhibition by RTK or N-RAS upregulation. Nature 468, 973–977 (2010). · DOI
  189. Villanueva, J. et al. Acquired resistance to BRAF inhibitors mediated by a RAF kinase switch in melanoma can be overcome by cotargeting MEK and IGF-1R/PI3K. Cancer Cell 18, 683–695 (2010). · DOI
  190. Nussinov, R., Tsai, C. J. & Ma, B. The underappreciated role of allostery in the cellular network. Annu. Rev. Biophys. 42, 169–189 (2013). · DOI
  191. Taipale, M. et al. Chaperones as thermodynamic sensors of drug-target interactions reveal kinase inhibitor specificities in living cells. Nature Biotech. 31, 630–637 (2013). · DOI
  192. Girotti, M. R. et al. Paradox-breaking RAF inhibitors that also target SRC are effective in drug-resistant BRAF mutant melanoma. Cancer Cell 27, 85–96 (2015). · DOI · Paper page
  193. Le, K., Blomain, E. S., Rodeck, U. & Aplin, A. E. Selective RAF inhibitor impairs ERK1/2 phosphorylation and growth in mutant NRAS, vemurafenib-resistant melanoma cells. Pigment Cell. Melanoma Res. 4, 509–517 (2013). · DOI
  194. Holderfield, M. et al. RAF inhibitors activate the MAPK pathway by relieving inhibitory autophosphorylation. Cancer Cell 23, 594–602 (2013). This paper highlights an alternative mechanism for inhibitor-induced RAF activation. The model suggests that RAF inhibitors shut down autophosphorylation sites that negatively control RAF kinase activity. · DOI
  195. Bollag, G. et al. Clinical efficacy of a RAF inhibitor needs broad target blockade in BRAF-mutant melanoma. Nature 467, 596–599 (2010). · DOI
  196. Hu, J. et al. Kinase regulation by hydrophobic spine assembly in cancer. Mol. Cell. Biol. 35, 264–276 (2015). · DOI
  197. Wojnowski, L., Stancato, L. F., Larner, A. C., Rapp, U. R. & Zimmer, A. Overlapping and specific functions of Braf and Craf-1 proto-oncogenes during mouse embryogenesis. Mech. Dev. 91, 97–104 (2000). · DOI
  198. Wojnowski, L. et al. Craf-1 protein kinase is essential for mouse development. Mech. Dev. 76, 141–149 (1998). · DOI
  199. Wojnowski, L. et al. Endothelial apoptosis in Braf-deficient mice. Nature Genet. 16, 293–297 (1997). · DOI
  200. Huser, M. et al. MEK kinase activity is not necessary for Raf-1 function. EMBO J. 20, 1940–1951 (2001). · DOI

200 of 235 shown

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Metadata

Authors
Lavoie, H., & Therrien, M.
Venue
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
Published
2015-04-23
Volume
16
Issue
5
Pages
281-298
ISSN
  • 1471-0072
  • 1471-0080
Cited by
702
References
13
Language
en

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review