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Cited by 218Nutrition, Health and Food BehaviorObesity, Physical Activity, DietNutritional Studies and Diet

Weekend Eating in the United States Is Linked with Greater Energy, Fat, and Alcohol Intake

Open access
Haines, Pamela S., Hama, Mary Y., Guilkey, David K., Popkin, Barry M.·2003·Obesity Research
DOI 10.1038/oby.2003.130
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Abstract

Objectives: To determine if macronutrient consumption for the U.S. population is greater on weekend days than weekdays. Research Methods and Procedures: The nationally representative 1994 to 1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals was used for this analysis. Dietary intake was assessed using two independent days of dietary recall data. Ordinary least squares multivariate analysis was used to analyze dietary outcome variables to explore the effect of weekend day vs. weekday intake. Results: This study's results indicate that statistically significant dietary intake differences occur for different days of the week but not for all age groups—nor for all nutrients. The average American, 2 years and older, consumes 82 kcal more per day on each weekend day (Friday through Sunday) than they do on weekdays (Monday through Thursday). These overall increases in dietary intake are significant for the overall sample and are largest for the 19‐ to 50‐year‐old age group; among this age group, the weekend day increase (vs. weekday) is 115 kcal/d. The increased proportions of energy from fat and alcohol consumed on weekends are greater for this adult age group by 0.7% and 1.4%, respectively, whereas the proportion of energy from carbohydrate decreases 1.6%. Discussion: The effects of weekend days on nutrient intake are substantial and should be considered in future clinical and population‐based interventions and in dietary monitoring and research in the U.S.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Using nationally representative 1994–1996 CSFII data, weekend days (Friday–Sunday) were linked with greater energy, fat, and alcohol intake than weekdays (Monday–Thursday) among Americans 2 years and older. The average respondent consumed 82 kcal more per weekend day, with the largest increase among adults 19–50 years old (115 kcal/d).

Key findings

  • In the full sample, weekend days were associated with 82 kcal more per day and 4.4 g more fat; energy from fat increased 0.7%, alcohol increased 0.9%, protein decreased 0.3%, and carbohydrate decreased 1.2% (all significant in Table 2).
  • Adults 19–50 years old had the largest weekend increase: 115 kcal/d, 5.5 g more fat, +0.7% energy from fat, +1.4% energy from alcohol, and −1.6% energy from carbohydrate (all significant).
  • Adults 51–70 years old also showed significant weekend increases: 74 kcal/d, 4.1 g more fat, +1.2% energy from fat, +0.4% energy from alcohol, and −1.6% energy from carbohydrate.
  • Differences were smaller and often not significant for younger and older groups; e.g., 12–18-year-olds consumed 18 kcal more on weekend days, and those 70+ consumed 13 kcal less, neither marked significant in Table 2.

Methods

  • The study used the 1994–1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII94-96), a self-weighting, multistage, stratified area sample of the U.S. population 2 years and older; analyses used two independent days of dietary recall per person.
  • The sample was stratified into six age groups, with day counts of 4200 (2–5 years), 2846 (6–11), 2498 (12–18), 9900 (19–50), 6182 (51–70), and 2530 (70+); Table 1 reports a total sample size of 28,156.
  • Ordinary least squares multivariate analysis was used for continuous nutrient outcomes, with sample weights and SEs corrected for clustering and multiple observations; weekend was defined as Friday–Sunday vs. Monday–Thursday, controlling for season, race-ethnicity, age, gender, income, education, region, residence, household size, food stamps, and WIC receipt.

Limitations

  • The authors state that estimated energy intakes were below Schofield total energy requirement estimates, leaving “some doubt about the biological significance” of the findings, though they argue the trends across seasons and days of the week are not affected by expected underestimation.
  • The authors note their results did not exactly conform to the Yanovski et al. holiday-weight-gain hypothesis; instead, fall was the key period of greater energy intake in their data.
  • Evident from the text: this is an observational analysis of self-reported 24-hour recalls, so it cannot establish causality, and the paper does not report measured weight change outcomes; weekend/weekday differences may also reflect reporting patterns or day-selection effects.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/oby.2003.130

Cites

8 of 8 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 7 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The 51-to-70-year-old subjects consumed more alcohol on weekends than on weekdays.

    “The 51-to 70-year-old subjects also consumed more alcohol on weekends, but in this age group, the greatest increase in calories came from fat (4.1 more g on weekend days).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Among the 19-to-50-year-old age group, the increased proportion of energy from fat on weekends is 0.7% greater than on weekdays.

    “The increased proportions of energy from fat and alcohol consumed on weekends are greater for this adult age group by 0.7% and 1.4%, respectively, whereas the proportion of energy from carbohydrate decreases 1.6%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Among the 19-to-50-year-old age group, the increased proportion of energy from alcohol on weekends is 1.4% greater than on weekdays.

    “The increased proportions of energy from fat and alcohol consumed on weekends are greater for this adult age group by 0.7% and 1.4%, respectively, whereas the proportion of energy from carbohydrate decreases 1.6%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    There are smaller day-of-week dietary intake changes for 1-to-18-year-old children and ≥70-year-old Americans than for the 19-to-50 and 51-to-70 age groups.

    “It is also important to note that there are smaller day of week dietary intake changes for 1-to 18-year-old children and Ն70-year-old Americans than for the other two age groups (i.e., 19 to 50 and 51 to 70 age groups).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Among the 19-to-50-year-old age group, the proportion of energy from carbohydrate decreases 1.6% on weekends compared with weekdays.

    “The increased proportions of energy from fat and alcohol consumed on weekends are greater for this adult age group by 0.7% and 1.4%, respectively, whereas the proportion of energy from carbohydrate decreases 1.6%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 10
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 3

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Statistically significant dietary intake differences occur for different days of the week, but not for all age groups nor for all nutrients.

    “This study's results indicate that statistically significant dietary intake differences occur for different days of the week but not for all age groups-nor for all nutrients.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The fall season had the largest seasonal differences for those 19 to 50 years old and for the entire sample.

    “The fall season had the largest seasonal differences for those 19 to 50 years old and for the entire sample.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Despite lack of variation across seasons in energy intake for the full sample, age-group-specific seasonal differences in energy intake ranged from 54 calories (4%) for 25-year-old subjects to 145 calories (7%) for 12-to-18-year-old subjects, 76 calories (4%) for 19-to-50-year-old subjects, 105 calories (6%) for 51-to-70-year-old subjects, and 139 calories (9%) for those 71 years old and older.

    “Despite the lack of variation across seasons in energy intake for the full sample, age groupspecific variations ranged from seasonal differences of 54 calories (4%) for 25-year-old subjects, 145 calories (7%) for 12-to 18-year-old subjects, 76 calories (4%) for 19-to 50-year-old subjects, 105 calories (6%) for 51-to 70-yearold subjects, and 139 calories (9%) for those 71 years old and older.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Our results did not exactly conform to the hypothesis generated by Yanovski et al. but did show that the fall period (September 21 to December 20) is the key period of greater energy intake.

    “Our results did not exactly conform to the hypothesis generated by Yanovski et al. but did show that the fall period (September 21 to December 20) is the key period of greater energy intake (1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In preliminary specification work, intakes on Friday were more similar to those of Saturday and Sunday than to other days of the week, and intakes on Monday through Thursday were similar to each other.

    “Our analyses concluded that intakes on Friday were more similar to those of Saturday and Sunday than they were to other days of the week and that intakes on Monday through Thursday were similar to each other.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    In the full sample, weekend-day increases in energy intake result from intake of alcohol, fat, and protein; there is no change in energy intake from carbohydrate on the weekend.

    “We observed weekend day increases in energy intake (compared with weekdays) that resulted from the intake of alcohol, fat, and protein; there was no change in energy intake from carbohydrate on the weekend.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The seasonal energy intake differences are important for the overall sample and for 19-to-50-year-old adults.

    “The seasonal energy intake differences are also important for the overall sample and for 19-to 50-year-old adults.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The weekend day-weekday dietary intake differences are particularly important for adults 19 to 50 and 51 to 70 years old but less important for the younger and older age groups.

    “The weekend day-weekday dietary intake differences are particularly important for adults 19 to 50 and 51 to 70 years old but less important for the younger and older age groups; e.g., because the 12-to 18-year-old age group consumed only 18 kcal of additional energy on weekend days, their weight gain would be only ϳ0.77 pounds.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The 19-to-50-year-old age group consumes 115 kcal more each weekend day than weekdays; in a given year, the weekend impact to this group would total 17,940 additional kcal (or almost 5 pounds).

    “Because the 19-to 50-year- old age group consumes 115 kcal more each weekend day (Friday to Sunday) than weekdays (Monday to Thursday) in a given year, the weekend impact to this group would total 17,940 additional kcal (or almost 5 pounds).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A positive energy imbalance of approximately 10 kcal per day increases a person's weight by 1 pound per year.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The 12-to-18-year-old age group consumed only 18 kcal of additional energy on weekend days; their weight gain would be only ~0.77 pounds.

    “e.g., because the 12-to 18-year-old age group consumed only 18 kcal of additional energy on weekend days, their weight gain would be only ϳ0.77 pounds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A positive energy imbalance of approximately 10 kcal per day increases a person's weight by 1 pound per year.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Sample weights were used in the estimations, so that the parameter estimates were for a nationally representative sample of respondents.

    “In all cases, sample weights were used in the estimations, so that the parameter estimates were for a nationally representative sample of respondents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Earlier small studies suggested that snacking and other daily patterns of eating-in particular, weekend day vs. weekday eating pattern differences-may be important.

    “some earlier small studies suggested that snacking and other daily patterns of eating-in particular, weekend day vs. weekday eating pattern differences-may be important (2)(3)(4)(5).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites (2)(3)(4)(5)

      Not checked in the free run.

12 of 12

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A positive energy imbalance of approximately 10 kcal per day increases a person's weight by 1 pound per year.

    “this is important because ϳ10 kcal of positive energy imbalance per day increases a person's weight by 1 pound/y.”
1 of 1

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Full-sample seasonal variation is both absent and important

    Minor

    The results say there is no seasonal variation in energy intake for the full sample, while the discussion says seasonal energy-intake differences are important for that same sample.

  • Oldest age group starts at both 70 and 71 years

    Minor

    The methods define the oldest group as ages 70 and older, but the seasonal results describe that group as ages 71 and older. This leaves the treatment of 70-year-olds inconsistent.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Houser H. B., 1981, Assembly of Life Sciences (U.S.) Committee on Food Consumption Patterns, 155
  2. Tippett K. S., 1997, Design and operation: The Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals and the Diet and Health Knowledge Survey 1994‐96. Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals 1994‐96, Nationwide Food Surveys Rep. 96–1

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Related

Authors
Haines, P. S., Hama, M. Y., Guilkey, D. K., & Popkin, B. M.
Affiliations
  • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
  • Agricultural Research Service (US)
Corresponding author
Popkin, Barry M.
ORCID
Popkin, Barry M.
Venue
Obesity Research
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2003-08
Volume
11
Issue
8
Pages
945-949
ISSN
  • 1071-7323 (ISSN-L)
  • 1550-8528
DOI
10.1038/oby.2003.130
OpenAlex
W2018095870
Semantic Scholar
cd2d45765e9eedad24e6b0f03fcf30374dc8fe1b
Cited by
218
References
8
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 9
FWCI
4.58
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 3324 d)
Locations
  • Obesity Research (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
Keywords
macronutrient intake, energy intake, dietary fat intake, alcohol consumption, carbohydrate intake, dietary monitoring
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Child, Child, Preschool, Diet Surveys, Eating, Feeding Behavior, Holidays, Humans, Middle Aged, Seasons, United States, Least-Squares Analysis

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