Snacking Increased among U.S. Adults between 1977 and 2006
Open accessAbstract
This study built on limited knowledge about patterns and trends of adult snacking in the US. We selected adults aged 19 y and older (n = 44,754) between 1977-1978 and 2003-2006 with results weighted and adjusted for sample design effects. Differences testing, by a Student's t test, used STATA 10 (P < or = 0.01). We defined a snacking event as intake of foods over a 15-min period and excluded food defined as snacks but eaten at a meal. Dietary data were obtained from the first 2 d for the 1977-1978 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS 77) and the 1989-1991 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII 89); and 2-d dietary data from the 1994-1996 CSFII (CSFII 96) and the NHANES from 2 consecutive surveys: NHANES 2003-2004 and NHANES 2005-2006 (NHANES 03-06). Results showed that snacking prevalence increased significantly from 71 to 97% in 2003-2006 with increases in both the 1989-1994 and the 1994-2006 periods. In all adults, snacking occasions increased 0.97 events over this time period (P < 0.01) and the contribution of snacks to total energy intake increased from 18 to 24% (P < 0.01). The energy density of snacks (food plus beverages) also increased progressively over the time period studied. Important changes in snacking food sources were found among desserts, salty snacks, candies, and sweetened beverages. More research is needed to gain a better understanding of the implications for overall energy intake and energy imbalance.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The period of time used to separate different eating occasions varies across studies, with intervals of 15 min, 30 min, 45 min, or 1 h reported.
“Indeed, the period of time used to separate different EO varies across studies, with intervals of 15 min( 40 , 42 , 50 ), 30 min( 53 ) or 45 min( 15 ) or 1 h( 51 ) reported.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [50]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
‘Small Changes' to Diet and Physical Activity Behaviors for Weight Management
Hills, A. P., Byrne, N. M., Lindstrom, R. C., & Hill, J. O. (2013) · Obesity Facts · doi:10.1159/000345030 · Cited by 9,526 · see citing works
Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in the United States, 1999-2004
Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., McDowell, M. A., Tabak, C. J., & Flegal, K. M. (2006) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.295.13.1549 · Cited by 8,720 · see citing works
Genetics of Food Intake Self-Regulation in Childhood: Literature Review and Research Opportunities
Faith, M. S., Carnell, S., & Kral, T. V. E. (2013) · Human Heredity · doi:10.1159/000353879 · Cited by 7,628 · see citing works
Popkin, B. M. (2006) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/84.1.289 · Cited by 1,876 · see citing works
Self-citationPopkin, B. M. (2006) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/84.2.289 · Cited by 1,522 · see citing works
Self-citationPatterns and Trends in Food Portion Sizes, 1977-1998
Nielsen, S. J., & Popkin, B. M. (2003) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.289.4.450 · Cited by 1,045 · see citing works
Self-citationGuthrie, J. F., Lin, B.-H., & Frazao, E. (2002) · Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s1499-4046(06)60083-3 · Cited by 973 · see citing works
Portion size of food affects energy intake in normal-weight and overweight men and women
Rolls, B. J., Morris, E. L., & Roe, L. S. (2002) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/76.6.1207 · Cited by 793 · see citing works
Association between Eating Patterns and Obesity in a Free-living US Adult Population
Ma, Y. (2003) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwg117 · Cited by 725 · see citing works
Limitations in the assessment of dietary energy intake by self-report
Schoeller, D. A. (1995) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/0026-0495(95)90204-x · Cited by 496 · see citing works
Nibbling versus gorging: metabolic advantages of increased meal frequency
Jenkins, D. J. A., Wolever, T. M. S., Vuksan, V., Brighenti, F., Cunnane, S. C., Rao, A. V., Jenkins, A. L., Buckley, G., Patten, R., Singer, W., et al. (1989) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm198910053211403 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
The increasing prevalence of snacking among US children from 1977 to 1996
Jahns, L., Siega‐Riz, A. M., & Popkin, B. M. (2001) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1067/mpd.2001.112162 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
Self-citationEating out in America, 1987–2000: trends and nutritional correlates
Kant, A. K., & Graubard, B. I. (2003) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2003.10.004 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Poppitt, S., Swann, D., Black, A., & Prentice, A. M. (1998) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0800584 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
Changing the Energy Density of the Diet as a Strategy for Weight Management
Rolls, B. J., Drewnowski, A., & Ledikwe, J. H. (2005) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2005.02.033 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
High-glycemic Index Foods, Hunger, and Obesity: Is There a Connection?
Roberts, S. B. (2009) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2000.tb01855.x · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Dietary fat and obesity: a review of animal, clinical and epidemiological studies
Bray, G. A., Paeratakul, S., & Popkin, B. M. (2004) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.08.039 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Self-citationZizza, C., Siega-Riz, A. M., & Popkin, B. M. (2001) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1006/pmed.2000.0817 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Self-citationBertéus Forslund, H., Torgerson, J. S., Sjöström, L., & Lindroos, A. K. (2005) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802950 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Rolls, B. J., Roe, L. S., & Meengs, J. S. (2006) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/83.1.11 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Eating behavior correlates of adult weight gain and obesity in healthy women aged 55–65 y
Hays, N. P., Bathalon, G. P., McCrory, M. A., Roubenoff, R., Lipman, R., & Roberts, S. B. (2002) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/75.3.476 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Meal frequency and energy balance
Bellisle, F., McDevitt, R., & Prentice, A. M. (1997) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1079/bjn19970104 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Kant, A. K., & Graubard, B. I. (2006) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/84.5.1215 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Foods commonly eaten in the United States, 1989-1991 and 1994-1996: Are portion sizes changing?
Smiciklas‐Wright, H., Mitchell, D. C., Mickle, S. J., Goldman, J. D., & Cook, A. (2003) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50000 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Eating patterns and dietary composition in relation to BMI in younger and older adults
Howarth, N. C., Huang, T. T.-K., Roberts, S. B., Lin, B.-H., & McCrory, M. A. (2007) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803456 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Do we eat less fat, or just report so?
Heitmann, B., Lissner, L., & Osler, M. (2000) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801176 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Weekend Eating in the United States Is Linked with Greater Energy, Fat, and Alcohol Intake
Haines, P. S., Hama, M. Y., Guilkey, D. K., & Popkin, B. M. (2003) · Obesity Research · doi:10.1038/oby.2003.130 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Self-citationSummerbell, C. D., Moody, R. C., Shanks, J., Stock, M. J., & Geissler, C. A. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 189 · see citing works
The World Is Fat: The Fads, Trends, Policies, and Products That Are Fattening the Human Race
Popkin, B. M. (2008) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Self-citationDrummond, S., Crombie, N., Cursiter, M., & Kirk, T. (1998) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0800552 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
STUBBS, R., & WHYBROW, S. (2004) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.04.027 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Snacking patterns influence energy and nutrient intakes but not body mass index
Hampl, J. S., Heaton, C. L. B., & Taylor, C. A. (2003) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1046/j.1365-277x.2003.00417.x · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, 1987
Peterkin, B. B., Rizek, R. L., & Tippett, K. S. (1988) · Nutrition Today · doi:10.1097/00017285-198801000-00003 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Snacking patterns among 1,800 adults and children
Cross, A. T., Babicz, D., & Cushman, L. F. (1994) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/0002-8223(94)92542-9 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
A critique of the effects of snacking on body weight status.
Drummond, S., Crombie, N. E., & Kirk, T. R. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Biobehavioral Influences on Energy Intake and Adult Weight Gain
McCrory, M. A., Suen, V. M. M., & Roberts, S. B. (2002) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/132.12.3830s · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Edelstein, S., Barrett-Connor, E., Wingard, D., & Cohn, B. (1992) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/55.3.664 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Frequency of eating occasions and weight change in the NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study.
Kant, A. K., Schatzkin, A. G., Graubard, B. I., & Ballard-Barbash, R. R. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Metzner, H., Lamphiear, D., Wheeler, N., & Larkin, F. (1977) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/30.5.712 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Devaney, B., Gordon, A., & Burghardt, J. (1995) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/61.1.205s · Cited by 121 · see citing works
(1995) · PubMed · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Snacking patterns in obese French women
Basdevant, A., Craplet, C., & Guy-Grand, B. (1993) · Appetite · doi:10.1006/appe.1993.1033 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Drewnowski, A. (2003) · Lipids · doi:10.1007/s11745-003-1039-3 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Food consumption trends of US women: patterns and determinants between 1977 and 1985
Popkin, B. M., Haines, P. S., & Reidy, K. (1989) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/49.6.1307 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citationDuffey, K. J., Gordon‐Larsen, P., Ayala, G. X., & Popkin, B. M. (2008) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.108.097105 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Influence of Dietary Composition on Energy Intake and Body Weight
Roberts, S. B., McCrory, M. A., & Saltzman, E. J. (2002) · Journal of the American College of Nutrition · doi:10.1080/07315724.2002.10719211 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Prevalence of Night Eating in Obese and Nonobese Twins
Tholin, S., Lindroos, A. K., Tynelius, P., Åkerstedt, T., Stunkard, A. J., Bulik, C. M., & Rasmussen, F. E. (2009) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2008.676 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
REVERSIBLE RENAL CONCENTRATING DEFECT IN SHOCK
Maletz, R. M., Part, F., Whang, R., & Brandfonbrener, M. (1975) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(75)90107-5 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Dietary Patterns and Trends in the United States: The UNC-CH Approach
Popkin, B. M., Haines, P. S., & Siega‐Riz, A. M. (1999) · Appetite · doi:10.1006/appe.1998.0190 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationMeal patterns in obese and normal weight men: the 'Gustaf' study.
Andersson, I., & Rössner, S. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Evening eating and subsequent long‐term weight change in a national cohort
Kant, A., Schatzkin, A., & Ballard-Barbash, R. (1997) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0800422 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
MEAL FREQUENCY AND ISCHÆMIC HEART-DISEASE
Fábry, P., Fodor, J., Hejl, Z., Geizerová, H., & Balcarová, O. (1968) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(68)92622-6 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Nationwide Food Consumption Survey
SERVICE, T. N. M. D. H. N. I. (1986) · Nutrition Today · doi:10.1097/00017285-198611000-00006 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The night eating syndrome: a progress report
Stunkard, A. J., Allison, K. C., & O’Reardon, J. P. (2005) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2005.01.013 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Adolescent snacks: Nutrient density and nutritional contribution to total intake
Bigler-Doughten, S., & Jenkins, R. M. (1987) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/s0002-8223(21)03389-7 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Appalachian adolescents' snack patterns: Morning, afternoon, and evening snacks
Ezell, J. M., Skinner, J. D., & Penfield, M. P. (1985) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/s0002-8223(21)03821-9 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Nutrient balance and body composition
Rolland‐Cachera, M., Deheeger, M., & Bellisle, F. (1997) · annales de biologie animale biochimie biophysique · doi:10.1051/rnd:19970609 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Roberts, S. B., & Williamson, D. F. (2002) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/132.12.3824s · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality
Leech, R. M., Worsley, A., Timperio, A., & McNaughton, S. A. (2015) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422414000262 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Eating patterns and type 2 diabetes risk in men: Breakfast omission, eating frequency, and snacking
Mekary, R. A., Giovannucci, E., Willett, W. C., van Dam, R. M., & Hu, F. B. (2012) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.028209 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Austin, G. L., Ogden, L. G., & Hill, J. O. (2011) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.110.000141 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Hess, J. M., Jonnalagadda, S. S., & Slavin, J. L. (2016) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.3945/an.115.009571 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
40-year trends in meal and snack eating behaviors of American adults
Kant, A. K., & Graubard, B. I. (2015) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2014.06.354 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Nutrition transition in the United Arab Emirates
Ng, S. W., Zaghloul, S., Ali, H., Harrison, G., Yeatts, K., El Sadig, M., & Popkin, B. M. (2011) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2011.135 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Self-citationAlmoosawi, S., Vingeliene, S., Karagounis, L. G., & Pot, G. K. (2016) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s0029665116000306 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Weighing the Evidence of Common Beliefs in Obesity Research
Casazza, K., Brown, A., Astrup, A., Bertz, F., Baum, C., Brown, M. B., Dawson, J., Durant, N., Dutton, G., Fields, D. A., et al. (2015) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2014.922044 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Popkin, B. M., & Duffey, K. J. (2010) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28962 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citationO’Connor, L., Brage, S., Griffin, S. J., Wareham, N. J., & Forouhi, N. G. (2015) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s000711451500269x · Cited by 125 · see citing works
The Role of Snacking in Energy Balance: a Biobehavioral Approach,
Chapelot, D. (2011) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.109.114330 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Duffey, K. J., Pereira, R. A., & Popkin, B. M. (2013) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2013.60 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Eating patterns of US adults: meals, snacks, and time of eating
Kant, A. K. (2018) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.03.022 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Negative emotional eating patterns among American university students: A replication study
Dixit, U., He, J., Whited, M., Ellis, J. M., & Zickgraf, H. F. (2023) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2023.106554 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
- Authors
- Piernas, C., & Popkin, B. M.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Corresponding author
- Popkin, Barry M.
- Venue
- The Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-02
- Volume
- 140
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 325-332
- ISSN
- 0022-3166 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2806886
- OpenAlex
- W2104599272
- Cited by
- 340
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 38
- FWCI
- 22.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
- UNC Libraries
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (2r24hd050924-06, R01-CA121152)
- National Cancer Institute (R01CA121152, R01CA109831)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R24 HD-050924)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- snacking, energy intake, energy density, desserts, salty snacks, confectionery, sweetened beverages, energy imbalance, dietary habits
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Energy Intake, Diet, Diet Surveys, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Nutritive Value, United States, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
