Smartphones are more reinforcing than food for students
Abstract
College students engage in high-frequency smartphone use, despite potential negative consequences. One way to conceptualize this behavior is to consider it a highly reinforcing activity. Comparing motivation for smartphones to a powerful primary reinforcer, such as food, can establish their relative reinforcing value. This study investigated whether smartphones were more reinforcing than food, as well as the relationships between smartphone reinforcement, texting use, and smartphone motives. Participants were 76 college students (50% female, M age = 18.9, SD = 0.99) who had no access to food for three hours and to their smartphones for two hours. After this modest deprivation period, participants worked for time to use their smartphones and 100-cal portions of their favorite snack food concurrently, with the work to obtain portions of both commodities increasing. The amount of smartphone use earned during the task was manipulated across groups (20, 30, 60, 120 s) to establish what amount of smartphone use was needed to motivate responding. Additionally, reinforcing efficacy of smartphones and food using a hypothetical purchase task and motivations for smartphone use was collected. Smartphones were more reinforcing than food using either measurement methodology (p's < 0.001). Smartphone reinforcement predicted number of text messages, controlling for age, sex, and family income. Positive smartphone use motives were associated with reinforcing efficacy of smartphones. These data show that smartphones are potent reinforcers, and are more reinforcing than food given modest food deprivation. These methods provide one important reason why people may use smartphones.
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Adolescents and young adults have a strong feeling of dependence on their mobile phone and these technological devices are even stronger than natural reinforcers such as food.
“previous studies showed that adolescents and young adults have a strong feeling of dependence on their mobile phone74 and that these technological devices are even stronger than natural reinforcers such as food75”
From Emotion-related impulsivity moderates the cognitive interference effect of smartphone availability on working memory (2019) · cites this paper as [75]
Smartphone reinforcing efficacy is associated with positive (reward related) use motives.
“As previous research showed that smartphone reinforcing efficacy is associated with positive (reward related) use motives75”
From Emotion-related impulsivity moderates the cognitive interference effect of smartphone availability on working memory (2019) · cites this paper as [75]
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Qualitative Approaches to the Study of Substance and Behavioral Addictions
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Substance and Behavioral Addictions Assessment Instruments
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Stressed-out, Self-isolated, and Hyper-connected: Teaching Today’s Learners
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Prevention and Treatment of Sex Addiction
Reid, R. C., Grubbs, J. B., & Kraus, S. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.025 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Weaponized Web: How Internet Technologies Fuel Intimate Partner Violence
Hertlein, K. M. (2021) · International Journal of Systemic Therapy · doi:10.1080/2692398x.2021.1906619 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Gaming Disorder and Its Treatment
Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., & Pontes, H. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.029 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Treatment of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drug (ATOD) Misuse
Sussman, S. Y., & Bolshakova, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.022 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Role of Culture in Addiction
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Passionate Love Addiction: An Evolutionary Survival Mechanism That Can Go Terribly Wrong
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Human Laboratory Paradigms in Addictions Research
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Anhedonia in Addictive Behaviors
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American Legal Issues in Addiction Treatment and Research
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عثمان, ن. أ. ا. (2021) · مجلة کلیة التربیة فى العلوم النفسیة · doi:10.21608/jfeps.2021.196138
Clinical and Research Methods in the Addictions
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Levels of Analysis and Etiology
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.014
Ongoing and Future Research Directions
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.030
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The Association Between Smartphone Usage and Health-Related Behaviors Among College Students
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No Effect of Preceding Smartphone Usage on Mind Wandering and Cognitive PerformancePreprint
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Chapter 7. Online Shopping and Auctions
Kagadkar, F., Santos, A., & Naghdechi, L. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615375257.lg07
Sherer, J. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615375257.lg01
Chapter 9. Special Considerations for Older Adults
Khalili, S. P. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615375257.lg09
Chapter 5. Internet Surfing and Information Overload
Grosse, D. G. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615375257.lg05
Chapter 8. Children and Adolescents
Aadil, M., Munir, A., Naghdechi, L., & Kaplan, Y. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615375257.lg08
Chapter 10. New and Emerging Addictive Technologies
Coira, R. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615375257.lg10
Chapter 4. Texting, Emailing, and Other Online Messaging
Wurtz, H., & Nazery, D. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615375257.lg04
Babajide, L.-A. (. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615375257.lg06
Chapter 2. Cybersex and Online Pornography
Naghdechi, L., Aadil, M., Kagadkar, F., & Levounis, P. (2021) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615375257.lg02
- Authors
- O'Donnell, S., & Epstein, L. H.
- Affiliations
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- Venue
- Addictive Behaviors
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-03
- Volume
- 90
- Pages
- 124-133
- ISSN
- 0306-4603 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2896457489
- Cited by
- 101
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 8
- FWCI
- 43.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Addictive Behaviors (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Digital Media and Philosophy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
- Keywords
- smartphone use, reinforcement, primary reinforcers, food deprivation, text messaging, university students, motivating operations
- MeSH terms
- Smartphone, Adolescent, Adult, Eating, Female, Food, Humans, Male, Motivation, Reinforcement, Psychology, Students, Universities, Young Adult
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