Influence of Weekend Lifestyle Patterns on Body Weight
Open accessAbstract
Objective: To determine whether alterations in diet and/or activity patterns during weekends contribute to weight gain or hinder weight loss. Methods and Procedures: Randomized, controlled trial comparing 1 year of caloric restriction (CR) with 1 year of daily exercise (EX). Subjects included 48 healthy adults (30F, 18M) aged 50–60 years with BMI 23.5–29.9 kg/m 2. Body weight was measured on 7 consecutive mornings for a total of 165 weeks at baseline and 437 weeks during the 1‐year interventions. Daily weight changes were calculated for weekends (Friday to Monday) and weekdays (Monday to Friday). Daily energy intake was estimated using food diaries; daily physical activity was measured using accelerometers. Both measures were validated against doubly labeled water (DLW). Results: At baseline, participants consistently gained weight on weekend days (+0.06 ± 0.03 kg/day, (mean ± s.e.), P = 0.02), but not on weekdays (−0.02 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.18). This was attributable to higher dietary intake on Saturdays and lower physical activity on Sundays relative to weekdays (both P < 0.05). During the interventions, both CR and EX participants were in negative energy balance on weekdays (P < 0.005). On weekends, however, CR participants stopped losing weight, and EX participants gained weight (+0.08 ± 0.03 kg/day, P < 0.0001) due to higher dietary intakes on weekends. This helps to explain the slower‐than‐expected rate of weight loss during the interventions. Discussion: Alterations in lifestyle behaviors on weekends contribute to weight gain or cessation of weight loss on weekends. These results provide one explanation for the relatively slow rates of weight loss observed in many studies, and the difficulty with maintaining significant weight loss.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a 1-year randomized controlled trial in 48 healthy adults aged 50–60, body weight increased on weekends at baseline and weekend dietary intake undermined weight loss during caloric restriction and exercise interventions. Higher weekend energy intake, especially on Saturdays, was the main contributor, while physical activity played a smaller role.
Key findings
- At baseline, participants gained weight on weekends (+0.06 ± 0.03 kg/day, P = 0.02) but not on weekdays (−0.02 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.18), for a net increase of 0.077 kg/week.
- During the intervention, CR and EX participants were in negative energy balance on weekdays (CR: −0.07 ± 0.02 kg/day, P < 0.001; EX: −0.08 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.004), but on weekends CR participants stopped losing weight (+0.02 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.38) and EX participants gained weight (+0.08 ± 0.03 kg/day, P < 0.0001).
- Baseline Saturday energy intake was higher than weekday intake (2,257 ± 111 kcal/d vs. 2,021 kcal/d, P = 0.03), with greater fat intake on weekends (36.5% vs. 34.7% of total kcal, P = 0.05).
- One-year weight changes were −8.0 ± 0.9 kg in CR, −6.4 ± 0.9 kg in EX, and −1.3 ± 0.9 kg in HL; 46 participants (96%) completed 1 year.
Methods
- Randomized, controlled trial comparing 1 year of caloric restriction (CR), 1 year of daily exercise (EX), or healthy lifestyle (HL) control in 48 adults (30 women, 18 men) aged 50–60 years with BMI 23.5–29.9 kg/m².
- Body weight was measured at home on 7 consecutive mornings for 165 weeks at baseline and 437 weeks during the 1-year interventions; daily weight changes were calculated for weekends (Friday to Monday) and weekdays (Monday to Friday).
- Energy intake was estimated from 7-day food diaries and physical activity from RT3 triaxial accelerometers, both validated against doubly labeled water; analyses used generalized estimating equation models.
Limitations
- The paper states that the proportion of weekend weight increase attributable to higher dietary intake versus lower physical activity cannot be determined with certainty because self-reported dietary intake accuracy varies between individuals and accelerometers may not detect small day-to-day physical activity differences.
- The paper states that participants contributed differentially to the data, with some missing follow-up data, and that the control group was smaller by design, which may explain why it did not show the weekend weight effect during the year-long study.
- Evident from the text: the baseline period may have been affected by anticipation of beginning a long-term CR or exercise intervention, possibly contributing to overeating, and the sample was older, postmenopausal women and men who were nonsmokers, did not exercise regularly, and were mostly overweight, limiting generalizability.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 11 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
At baseline, the higher energy intake on weekends was attributable to greater consumption of fat (36.5% of total kcal on weekends vs. 34.7% on weekdays, P = 0.05).
“The higher energy intake on weekends was attributable to greater consumption of fat (36.5% of total kcal on weekends vs. 34.7% on weekdays, P = 0.05)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
During the 1-year interventions, CR and EX participants were in negative energy balance on weekdays (CR: -0.07 ± 0.02 kg/day, P < 0.001; EX: -0.08 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.004).
“As prescribed, the CR and EX participants were in negative energy balance during the weekdays (CR: -0.07 ± 0.02 kg/day, P < 0.001; EX: -0.08 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.004).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“During the interventions, both CR and EX participants were in negative energy balance on weekdays (P < 0.005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
At baseline, average Saturday energy intake (2,257 ± 111 kcal/d) was significantly greater than average weekday intake (2,021 kcal/d; P = 0.03).
“the average Saturday intake (2,257 ± 111 kcal/d) significantly greater than the average intake during the weekdays (2,021 kcal/d; P = 0.03 Saturday vs. weekdays)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
At baseline, participants gained weight on weekend days (+0.06 ± 0.03 kg/day, P = 0.02).
“At baseline, participants consistently gained weight on weekend days (+0.06 ± 0.03 kg/day, (mean ± s.e.), P = 0.02)”
- Also stated in: § daily weight changes · plain
“body weight at baseline increased significantly during the weekend days (+0.06 ± 0.03 kg/day, P = 0.02, all participants combined)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § daily weight changes · plain
- Findingown data
During the 1-year interventions, EX participants gained weight on weekends (+0.08 ± 0.03 kg/day, P < 0.0001).
“whereas EX participants gained weight (+0.08 ± 0.03 kg, P < 0.0001)”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“EX participants gained weight (+0.08 ± 0.03 kg/day, P < 0.0001) due to higher dietary intakes on weekends”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
At baseline, participants did not significantly change weight on weekdays (-0.02 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.18).
“but not on weekdays (-0.02 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.18)”
- Also stated in: § daily weight changes · hedged
“with a nonsignificant trend downward on weekdays (-0.02 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.18)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § daily weight changes · hedged
- Findingown data
During the intervention, physical activity was greater on weekends than weekdays for the CR group (P = 0.040).
“physical activity was greater on weekends than weekdays for the CR group (P = 0.040), due to higher activity on Saturdays (P = 0.045) and Sundays (P = 0.041) relative to weekdays”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
During the 1-year intervention, energy intake for all three study groups was significantly higher on weekends than on weekdays.
“During the 1-year intervention, energy intake for all 3 study groups was significantly higher on weekends as compared to weekdays (Figure 3a).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
During the 1-year interventions, CR participants stopped losing weight on weekends (+0.02 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.38).
“During the weekends, however, CR participants stopped losing weight (+0.02 ± 0.02 kg/day, P = 0.38)”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“On weekends, however, CR participants stopped losing weight”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
The EX group did not display different physical activity patterns on weekends relative to weekdays during the intervention (P = 0.56).
“The EX group did not display different activity patterns on weekends relative to weekdays (P = 0.56)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The baseline weekly rate of weight gain (0.077 kg/week) could result in an annual increase of 4.0 kg if it continued in a similar pattern throughout the year.
“Although small on a weekly basis, this rate of weight gain could result in an annual increase of 4.0 kg, or almost 9 lb, if it continued in a similar pattern throughout the year.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The baseline weekend weight gain pattern would continue in a similar pattern throughout the year.
- Study design and conductown data
Home scale weights were validated against clinic scale weights, with intraclass correlation coefficients of 0.99 at baseline and at each time point during the intervention.
“Intraclass correlation coefficients between the home scale weights and the clinic scale weights were 0.99 at baseline and for each time point during the intervention.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
This is the first study to demonstrate that weight gain occurs during weekend days relative to weekdays.
“This is the first study to demonstrate that weight gain occurs during weekend days relative to weekdays, and that this effect is attributable predominantly to higher energy intake during weekends.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Participants contributed differentially to the data, with some participants missing data at a follow-up time point and therefore being underrepresented relative to participants with data at all study time points.
“Another limitation is that participants contributed differentially to the data, with some participants missing data at a follow-up time point and therefore being underrepresented relative to participants with data at all study time points.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductcitation
The proportion of the weekend weight increase attributable to higher dietary intake versus lower physical activity cannot be determined with certainty, because self-reported dietary intake accuracy varies between individuals and accelerometers may not detect small day-to-day differences in physical activity.
“First, we cannot determine with certainty what proportion of the weekend weight increase was attributable to higher dietary intake or lower physical activity relative to weekdays, as the accuracy of self-reported dietary intake is variable between individuals (14-16), and the accelerometers may not be sensitive enough to detect small day-to-day differences in physical activity (17,18).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked - Study design and conductown data
Self-reported energy intake was validated against objectively determined energy intake, with a correlation of 0.58 (P < 0.0001) at baseline.
“The correlation between self-reported energy intake and objectively determined energy intake was 0.58 (P < 0.0001) at baseline.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductcitation
Eligible participants were randomly assigned to CR, EX, or HL control in a 2:2:1 randomization scheme.
“Eligible participants were randomly assigned to 1 year of a calorierestricted (CR) diet, a comparable energy deficit induced by daily exercise (EX), or a healthy lifestyle (HL) control group in a 2:2:1 randomization scheme, as described in detail previously (6).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [6] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductown data
Accelerometer-derived physical activity was validated against DLW-determined physical activity, with a correlation of 0.53 (P = 0.0005) at baseline.
“The correlation between accelerometerderived physical activity and physical activity determined from DLW was 0.53 (P = 0.0005) at baseline.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- May combine two claims. 8
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 4
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAt baseline, physical activity was lowest on Sundays and highest on Saturdays, with Sunday activity significantly lower than average weekday activity (P = 0.010).
“At baseline, physical activity was lowest on Sundays and highest on Saturdays (Figure 2b), with Sunday's activity significantly lower than the average weekday activity (P = 0.010 Sunday vs. weekdays)”
- Also stated in: § articles interVentiOn anD preVentiOn · plain
“Our accelerometer results at baseline reveal low physical activity levels on Sundays, which support the pedometerbased findings of Clemes et al. (13)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [13] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § articles interVentiOn anD preVentiOn · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAt baseline, the difference between weekend and weekday weight changes was significant (P = 0.04), resulting in a net increase of 0.077 kg per week.
“This difference between weekend and weekday weight changes was significant (P = 0.04), resulting in a net increase of 0.077 kg per week.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe HL control group did not have significant weight changes on weekends (-0.01 ± 0.00 kg/day, P = 0.94) or weekdays (-0.02 ± 0.03 kg/day, P = 0.23) during the intervention.
“The HL control group did not have significant weight changes on weekends (-0.01 ± 0.00 kg/day, P = 0.94) or weekdays (-0.02 ± 0.03 kg/day, P = 0.23).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataDuring the year-long interventions, the CR group's cessation of weight loss and the EX group's weight gain on weekends were solely attributable to higher dietary intake on weekends.
“During the year-long interventions, the CR group stopped losing weight on weekends and the exercise group gained weight, which was solely attributable to higher dietary intake on weekends.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“On weekends, however, CR participants stopped losing weight, and EX participants gained weight (+0.08 ± 0.03 kg/day, P < 0.0001) due to higher dietary intakes on weekends.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataAlterations in lifestyle behaviors on weekends contribute to weight gain or cessation of weight loss on weekends.
“Alterations in lifestyle behaviors on weekends contribute to weight gain or cessation of weight loss on weekends.”
- Also stated in: § articles interVentiOn anD preVentiOn · plain
“weekend dietary indulgences contribute to weight gain or cessation of weight loss”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § articles interVentiOn anD preVentiOn · plain
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataAt baseline, the weekend weight gain was attributable to higher dietary intake on Saturdays and lower physical activity on Sundays relative to weekdays.
“This was attributable to higher dietary intake on Saturdays and lower physical activity on Sundays relative to weekdays (both P < 0.05).”
- Also stated in: § articles interVentiOn anD preVentiOn · plain
“the consistent and significant increase in body weight from Friday through Monday morning was due to both higher dietary intake and lower physical activity on weekends relative to weekdays”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § articles interVentiOn anD preVentiOn · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe control group was smaller than the intervention groups by design, which may explain why it did not display the weekend weight effect during the year-long study that was observed among the whole sample at baseline.
“By design, the control group was smaller than the intervention groups, which may explain why they did not display the weekend weight effect during the year-long study that was observed among the whole sample at baseline.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe annual rate of weight gain in the general population is generally less than 1 kg/year.
“as the annual rate of weight gain generally is <1 kg/year (9)(10)(11)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe large number of days included in the analyses and the statistical controls used should have minimized sampling biases.
“Despite these limitations, the large number of days included in these analyses and the statistical controls used should have minimized sampling biases.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn the National Weight Control Registry, participants who reported greater dieting consistency (maintaining the same diet regimen on weekends as on weekdays) were more likely to maintain their weight within 2.3 kg during the subsequent year, whereas those with lower dieting consistency scores were more likely to regain weight.
“Participants who reported greater dieting consistency (i.e., maintaining the same diet regimen on weekends as on weekdays) were more likely to maintain their weight within 2.3 kg during the subsequent year, whereas participants with lower dieting consistency scores were more likely to regain weight during the subsequent year.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [5] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe anticipation of beginning a long-term CR or exercise intervention may have contributed to overeating during the baseline period in this study.
“However, the anticipation of beginning a long-term CR or exercise intervention may have contributed to overeating during the baseline period in the present study”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
The baseline weekend weight gain pattern would continue in a similar pattern throughout the year.
“if it continued in a similar pattern throughout the year”
The paper relies on this without support.
Daily body weight changes primarily reflect changes in energy balance rather than only hydration status or other short-term fluctuations.
“Daily fluctuations in body weight are common due to changes in hydration status, dietary intake, and daily physical activity patterns.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
People's eating patterns and daily routines vary over the week.
“Considering that people’s eating patterns and daily routines vary over the week [31,32], analyzing the temporal context of app usage may help identify the best times to start using an app that promotes lifestyle changes.”
From Factors related to sustained use of a free mobile app for dietary self-monitoring with photography and peer feedback: retrospective cohort study (2014) · cites this paper as [32]
Prior studies have found that diet quality is generally poorer during weekends than on weekdays and calorie intake is higher, especially in the form of fat and alcohol.
“Prior studies have found that diet quality is generally poorer during weekends than on weekdays and calorie intake is higher, especially in the form of fat and alcohol [31,32,35]”
From Factors related to sustained use of a free mobile app for dietary self-monitoring with photography and peer feedback: retrospective cohort study (2014) · cites this paper as [32]
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- Authors
- Racette, S. B., Weiss, E. P., Schechtman, K. B., Steger‐May, K., Villareal, D. T., Obert, K. A., Holloszy, J. O., & Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Team
- Affiliations
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Racette, Susan B.
- Venue
- Obesity
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2008-08
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1826-1830
- ISSN
- 1930-7381 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-739X
- PMC
- PMC3740215
- OpenAlex
- W2065630945
- Semantic Scholar
- 13751d7d19b15d4a391bc828794cf3804733fece
- Cited by
- 106
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 2.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Obesity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Aging (U01AG020487, 5-U01-AG20487, AG 00078, T32AG000078)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (DK56341, P30DK056341)
- National Center for Research Resources (RR.00036, M01RR000036)
- Duke Clinical Research Institute
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Physical Activity and Health
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health and Lifestyle Studies
- Keywords
- weekend effect, body weight, caloric restriction, daily exercise, dietary intake, physical activity, energy balance, weight loss maintenance, older adults, lifestyle patterns
- MeSH terms
- Activities of Daily Living, Body Weight, Energy Intake, Female, Humans, Life Style, Male, Middle Aged, Weight Gain, Weight Loss, Exercise, Diet Records, Caloric Restriction
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