The Confidence Database
Open accessAbstract
Understanding how people rate their confidence is critical for the characterization of a wide range of perceptual, memory, motor and cognitive processes. To enable the continued exploration of these processes, we created a large database of confidence studies spanning a broad set of paradigms, participant populations and fields of study. The data from each study are structured in a common, easy-to-use format that can be easily imported and analysed using multiple software packages. Each dataset is accompanied by an explanation regarding the nature of the collected data. At the time of publication, the Confidence Database (which is available at https://osf.io/s46pr/) contained 145 datasets with data from more than 8,700 participants and almost 4 million trials. The database will remain open for new submissions indefinitely and is expected to continue to grow. Here we show the usefulness of this large collection of datasets in four different analyses that provide precise estimations of several foundational confidence-related effects.
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The development of the Confidence Database and the adoption of consensus goals in the field have accelerated efforts in the metaperception field.
“These endeavors have been accelerated by the development of the Confidence Database and the adoption of consensus goals in the field (Rahnev et al. 2020(Rahnev et al. , 2022)).”
From Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis (2024) · cites this paper as Rahnev et al. 2020
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Mei, N., Rankine, S., Olafsson, E., & Soto, D. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-62719-z · Cited by 10 · see citing works
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Hellmann, S., Zehetleitner, M., & Rausch, M. (2024) · Computational Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1007/s42113-024-00205-9 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
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Goodwin, I., Diederen, K. M. J., Hird, E., Weilnhammer, V. A., Garrido, M. I., & Knolle, F. (2026) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-025-00558-5 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Haddara, N., & Rahnev, D. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/p8zyw · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationFleming, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Consciousness Studies · doi:10.53765/20512201.30.9.113 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Orchard, E. R., Dakin, S. C., & van Boxtel, J. J. A. (2022) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.22.10.19 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Perquin, M. N., Heed, T., & Kayser, C. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001630 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Metacognitive Domains Are Not Aligned along a Dimension of Internal-External Information Source
Arbuzova, P., Maurer, L. K., & Filevich, E. (2022) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-022-02201-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationUsing serial dependence to predict confidence across observers and cognitive domains
Mei, N., Rahnev, D., & Soto, D. (2023) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-023-02261-x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationConfidence response times: Challenging postdecisional models of confidence
Chen, S., & Rahnev, D. (2023) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.23.7.11 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationDataMaze: An open source methods and data repository for Morris water maze experiments
Balcı, F., Aydoğan, T., Kılıç, D., Tetik, D., Kavuşturan, İ., Kamış, F. P., Turmuş, R., Sharma, A., & Yossief, M. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106341 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationCiston, A. B., Forster, C., Brick, T. R., Kühn, S., Verrel, J., & Filevich, E. (2022) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105155 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationBulley, A., Lempert, K. M., Conwell, C., Irish, M., & Schacter, D. L. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/w5zuk · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationA uniform human multimodal dataset for emotion perception and judgment
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Evaluating false positive rates of standard and hierarchical measures of metacognitive accuracy
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Self-citationOverhoff, H., Ko, Y. H., Fink, G. R., Stähl, J., Weiss, P. H., Bode, S., & Nießen, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.969074 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pournaghdali, A., Schwartz, B. L., & Soto, F. A. (2025) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.442 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
On Bayesian integration in sensorimotor learning: Another look at Kording and Wolpert (2004)
Duffy, S., Hertel, J., Igan, D. O., Pinheiro, M., & Smith, J. B. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.03.021 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Metacognition in Second Language Speech Perception and Production
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Self-citationProbabilistic causal reasoning under time pressure
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The general causal cumulative model of ordinal responsePreprint
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Self-citationRetrospective judgments of confidence in a complex span task
Lau, G., Moulin, C. J. A., & Portrat, S. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-45552-y · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Priors for natural image statistics inform confidence in perceptual decisions
West, R. K., A-Izzeddin, E. J., Sewell, D. K., & Harrison, W. J. (2025) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2025.103818 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Individual differences do not mask effects of unconscious processing
Yaron, I., Faivre, N., Mudrik, L., & Mazor, M. (2025) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-025-02679-5 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationEvidence for a metacognitive awareness of autobiographical memory organisation
Carreras, F., & Moulin, C. J. A. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-34389-0 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Inferring serial correlation with dynamic backgroundsPreprint
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Self-citationKuśmierczyk, P., Kurach, R., & Kośny, M. (2025) · DECISION · doi:10.1007/s40622-025-00451-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Objectively quantifying subjective phenomena: Measuring the flashed face distortion effect
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Self-citationBimodal inference in humans and micePreprint
Weilnhammer, V. A., Stuke, H., Standvoss, K., & Sterzer, P. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.08.20.457079 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Response bias reflects individual differences in sensory encodingPreprint
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Miyoshi, K., & Nishida, S. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.10.28.514329 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
No gender difference in confidence or metacognitive ability in perceptual decision makingPreprint
Xue, K., Zheng, Y., Papalexandrou, C., & Rahnev, D. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/drvk2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationHu, M., Zhao, W., Li, A., Shanks, D. R., Yu, Y., Tian, X., Liu, M., Hu, X., Luo, L., & Yang, C. (2025) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976251358838 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationThe order of task decisions and confidence ratings has little effect on metacognition
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Metacognitive ability is associated with reduced emotion suppression
Double, K. S. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-37054-4 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Rahnev, D., Desender, K., Lee, A. L. F., Adler, W. T., Aguilar-Lleyda, D., Akdoğan, B., Arbuzova, P., Atlas, L. Y., Balcı, F., Bang, J. W., Bègue, I., Birney, D. P., Brady, T. F., Calder-Travis, J., Chetverikov, A., Clark, T. K., Davranche, K., Denison, R. N., Dildine, T. C., Double, K. S., Duyan, Y. A., Faivre, N., Fallow, K., Filevich, E., Gajdos, T., Gallagher, R. M., de Gardelle, V., Gherman, S., Haddara, N., Hainguerlot, M., Hsu, T.-Y., Hu, X., Iturrate, I., Jaquiery, M., Kantner, J., Koculak, M., Konishi, M., Koß, C., Kvam, P. D., Kwok, S. C., Lebreton, M., Lempert, K. M., Ming Lo, C., Luo, L., Maniscalco, B., Martin, A., Massoni, S., Matthews, J., Mazancieux, A., Merfeld, D. M., O’Hora, D., Palser, E. R., Paulewicz, B., Pereira, M., Peters, C., Philiastides, M. G., Pfuhl, G., Prieto, F., Rausch, M., Recht, S., Reyes, G., Rouault, M., Sackur, J., Sadeghi, S., Samaha, J., Seow, T. X. F., Shekhar, M., Sherman, M. T., Siedlecka, M., Skóra, Z., Song, C., Soto, D., Sun, S., van Boxtel, J. J. A., Wang, S., Weidemann, C. T., Weindel, G., Wierzchoń, M., Xu, X., Ye, Q., Yeon, J., Zou, F., & Zylberberg, A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Ghent University (BE)
- Lingnan University (HK)
- New York University (US)
- Columbia University (US)
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (DE)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Koç University (TR)
- NYU Langone Health (US)
- University of Geneva (CH)
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Laboratoire de Psychologie et NeuroCognition (FR)
- University of Victoria (CA)
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- Feinstein Institute for Medical Research (US)
- Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
- Taipei Medical University (TW)
- Beijing Normal University (CN)
- California State University, Northridge (US)
- Jagiellonian University (PL)
- University of Florida (US)
- New York University Shanghai (CN)
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- Monash University (AU)
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Ollscoil na Gaillimhe – University of Galway (IE)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Uniwersytet SWPS (PL)
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (CH)
- University of Glasgow (GB)
- UiT The Arctic University of Norway (NO)
- Universidad del Desarrollo (CL)
- Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt (DE)
- Cornell University (US)
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- Trinity College Dublin (IE)
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School (GB)
- Cardiff University (GB)
- Ikerbasque (ES)
- California Institute of Technology (US)
- West Virginia University (US)
- Swansea University (GB)
- East China Normal University (CN)
- University of Rochester (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rahnev, Dobromir
- ORCID
- Rahnev, Dobromir
- Desender, Kobe
- Lee, Alan L. F.
- Adler, William T.
- Aguilar-Lleyda, David
- Akdoğan, Başak
- Arbuzova, Polina
- Atlas, Lauren Y.
- Balcı, Fuat
- Bang, Ji Won
- Bègue, Indrit
- Birney, Damian P.
- Brady, Timothy F.
- Calder-Travis, Joshua
- Chetverikov, Andrey
- Clark, Torin K.
- Davranche, Karen
- Denison, Rachel N.
- Dildine, Troy C.
- Double, Kit S.
- Duyan, Yalçın A.
- Faivre, Nathan
- Fallow, Kaitlyn
- Filevich, Elisa
- Gajdos, Thibault
- Gallagher, Regan M.
- de Gardelle, Vincent
- Gherman, Sabina
- Haddara, Nadia
- Hsu, Tzu-Yu
- Hu, Xiao
- Iturrate, Iñaki
- Jaquiery, Matt
- Koculak, Marcin
- Konishi, Mahiko
- Koß, Christina
- Kvam, Peter D.
- Kwok, Sze Chai
- Lebreton, Maël
- Lempert, Karolina M.
- Ming Lo, Chien
- Luo, Liang
- Maniscalco, Brian
- Massoni, Sébastien
- Matthews, Julian
- Mazancieux, Audrey
- Merfeld, Daniel M.
- O’Hora, Denis
- Palser, Eleanor R.
- Paulewicz, Borysław
- Pereira, Michael
- Peters, Caroline
- Philiastides, Marios G.
- Pfuhl, Gerit
- Prieto, Fernanda
- Rausch, Manuel
- Recht, Samuel
- Reyes, Gabriel
- Rouault, Marion
- Sackur, Jérôme
- Sadeghi, Saeedeh
- Samaha, Jason
- Seow, Tricia X. F.
- Shekhar, Medha
- Sherman, Maxine T.
- Siedlecka, Marta
- Skóra, Zuzanna
- Song, Chen
- Soto, David
- Sun, Sai
- van Boxtel, Jeroen J. A.
- Wang, Shuo
- Weidemann, Christoph T.
- Weindel, Gabriel
- Wierzchoń, Michał
- Xu, Xinming
- Ye, Qun
- Yeon, Jiwon
- Zou, Futing
- Zylberberg, Ariel
- Venue
- Nature Human Behaviour
- Published
- 2020-02-03
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 317-325
- ISSN
- 2397-3374 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7565481
- OpenAlex
- W3003585144
- Cited by
- 151
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 12 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 12.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Human Behaviour (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (acceptedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Homo Politicus (Academy of Humanities and Economics in Lodz) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Communities in ADDI (Universidad del Pais Vasco) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Communities in ADDI (University of the Basque Country) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Collections portal (Koç University) (submittedVersion)
- Publication Server of the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt (Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Hispana (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- TUbilio (Technical University of Darmstadt) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of Mental Health (R56MH119189)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- confidence ratings, metacognition, metacognitive calibration, metacognitive sensitivity, perceptual confidence, memory confidence, cognitive confidence
- MeSH terms
- Metacognition, Adult, Choice Behavior, Humans, Mental Processes, Psychometrics, Reaction Time, Task Performance and Analysis, Databases, Factual, Datasets as Topic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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