Animal models for COVID-19
Open accessAbstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the aetiological agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an emerging respiratory infection caused by the introduction of a novel coronavirus into humans late in 2019 (first detected in Hubei province, China). As of 18 September 2020, SARS-CoV-2 has spread to 215 countries, has infected more than 30 million people and has caused more than 950,000 deaths. As humans do not have pre-existing immunity to SARS-CoV-2, there is an urgent need to develop therapeutic agents and vaccines to mitigate the current pandemic and to prevent the re-emergence of COVID-19. In February 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) assembled an international panel to develop animal models for COVID-19 to accelerate the testing of vaccines and therapeutic agents. Here we summarize the findings to date and provides relevant information for preclinical testing of vaccine candidates and therapeutic agents for COVID-19.
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Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, species susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 was unknown and no ready model existed.
“At the beginning of the pandemic, it was unclear which species were susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 and no model was readily available to study the course of the disease and identify druggable targets against the unknown pathogen9.”
From Human disease models in drug development (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
The Abstract says the WHO convened experts in February 2020 to develop COVID-19 animal models, and the Conclusions describe efforts to determine which species are susceptible. These passages support the early uncertainty and need for models, but they do not establish that models were needed specifically to identify druggable targets. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe primary animal models of COVID-19 from SARS-CoV-2 infection include the golden hamster, ferret, nonhuman primates, and mouse models.
“The primary animal models of COVID-19 from SARS-CoV-2 infection include the golden hamster, ferret, nonhuman primates, and mouse models (reviewed in the studies by Munoz-Fontela et al 175 and Chu et al 176 ).”
From COVID-19, Myocarditis and Pericarditis (2023) · cites this paper as [175]
CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses play important roles in the resolution of SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19, including modulating disease severity in humans and reducing viral loads in non-human primates.
“Several lines of evidence suggest that CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses play important roles in the resolution of SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19,33 including modulating disease severity in humans34,35 and reducing viral loads in non-human primates.36”
From Impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on the total CD4+ and CD8+ T cell reactivity in infected or vaccinated individuals (2021) · cites this paper as [36]
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Self-citationUtility of Humanized BLT Mice for Analysis of Dengue Virus Infection and Antiviral Drug Testing
Frias‐Staheli, N., Dorner, M., Marukian, S., Billerbeck, E., Labitt, R. N., Rice, C. M., & Ploß, A. (2013) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.03085-13 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Comparison of Transgenic and Adenovirus hACE2 Mouse Models for SARS-CoV-2 InfectionPreprint
Rathnasinghe, R., Strohmeier, S., Amanat, F., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.07.06.190066 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Boudewijns, R., Thibaut, H. J., Kaptein, S. J. F., Li, R., Vergote, V., Seldeslachts, L., Keyzer, C. D., Bervoets, L., Sharma, S., Weyenbergh, J. V., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.04.23.056838 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationPrice, A., Okumura, A., Haddock, E., Feldmann, F., Meade-White, K. D., Sharma, P., Artami, M., Lipkin, W. I., Threadgill, D. W., Feldmann, H., et al. (2019) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2020.01.026 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationLabs rush to study coronavirus in transgenic animals — some are in short supply
Callaway, E. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00698-x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Bauer, D. C., Tay, A. P., Wilson, L. O. W., Reti, D., Hosking, C., McAuley, A. J., Pharo, E. A., Todd, S., Stevens, V., Neave, M. J., et al. (2020) · Transboundary and Emerging Diseases · doi:10.1111/tbed.13588 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationFinch, C. L., Crozier, I., Lee, J. H., Byrum, R., Cooper, T. K., Liang, J. Y., Sharer, K., Solomon, J. M., Sayre, P. J., Kocher, G. A., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.05.14.096727 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationRyan, K. A., Bewley, K. R., Fotheringham, S. A., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.05.29.123810 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Winkler, E. S., Bailey, A. L., Kafai, N. M., Nair, S., McCune, B. T., Yu, J., Fox, J. M., Chen, R. E., Earnest, J. T., Keeler, S. P., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.07.09.196188 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Veljković, V., Vergara‐Alert, J., Segalés, J., & Paessler, S. (2020) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.22149.4 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationRapid adaptation of SARS-CoV-2 in BALB/c mice: Novel mouse model for vaccine efficacyPreprint
Gu, H., Chen, Q., Yang, G., He, L., Fan, H., Deng, Y., Wang, Y., Teng, Y., Zhao, Z., Cui, Y., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.05.02.073411 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationExperimental Transmission Studies of SARS-CoV-2 in Fruit Bats, Ferrets, Pigs and ChickensPreprint
Schlottau, K., Rissmann, M., Graaf, A., et al. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3578792 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Domestic Poultry and SARS Coronavirus, Southern China
Swayne, D. E., Suarez, D. L., Spackman, E., et al. (2004) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid1005.030827 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Spengler, J. R., Saturday, G. A., Lavender, K. J., et al. (2017) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jix562 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Kaptein, S. J. F., Jacobs, S., Langendries, L., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.06.19.159053 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationFavipiravir antiviral efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 in a hamster modelPreprint
Driouich, J., Cochin, M., Lingas, G., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.07.07.191775 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
A single-dose live-attenuated YF17D-vectored SARS-CoV2 vaccine candidatePreprint
Sánchez-Felipe, L., Vercruysse, T., Sharma, S., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.07.08.193045 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
SARS-Like Coronavirus WIV1-CoV Does Not Replicate in Egyptian Fruit Bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus)
van Doremalen, N., Schäfer, A., Menachery, V. D., Letko, M. C., Bushmaker, T., Fischer, R. J., Figueroa, D. M., Hanley, P. W., Saturday, G. A., Baric, R. S., et al. (2018) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v10120727 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationPathogenesis, transmission and response to re-exposure of SARS-CoV-2 in domestic catsPreprint
Bosco‐Lauth, A. M., Hartwig, A. E., Porter, S. M., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.05.28.120998 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
K18-hACE2 Mice for Studies of COVID-19 Treatments and Pathogenesis Including AnosmiaPreprint
Zheng, J. H., Wong, L.-Y. R., Li, K., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.08.07.242073 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 does not replicate in embryonated hen’s eggs or in MDCK cell lines
Barr, I., Rynehart, C., Whitney, P. G., et al. (2020) · Eurosurveillance · doi:10.2807/1560-7917.es.2020.25.25.2001122 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [40]Driouich J-S Favipiravir and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in hamster model. bioRxiv 26, 2020.07.07.191775 (2020).
- [72]Si L Human organs-on-chips as tools for repurposing approved drugs as potential influenza and COVID19 therapeutics in viral pandemics. bioRxiv 54, 2020.04.13.039917 (2020).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Tarke, A., Sidney, J., Methot, N., Yu, E. D., Zhang, Y., Dan, J. M., Goodwin, B., Rubiro, P., Sutherland, A., Wang, E., et al. (2021) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100355 · Cited by 706 · see citing works
The cGAS–STING pathway drives type I IFN immunopathology in COVID-19
Domizio, J. D., Gulen, M. F., Saidoune, F., Thacker, V. V., Yatim, A., Sharma, K., Nass, T., Guenova, E., Schaller, M., Conrad, C., et al. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04421-w · Cited by 538 · see citing works
Human disease models in drug development
Loewa, A., Feng, J. J., & Hedtrich, S. (2023) · Nature Reviews Bioengineering · doi:10.1038/s44222-023-00063-3 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
COVID-19, Myocarditis and Pericarditis
Fairweather, D., Beetler, D. J., Di Florio, D. N., Musigk, N., Heidecker, B., & Cooper, L. T. (2023) · Circulation Research · doi:10.1161/circresaha.123.321878 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Rauch, S., Roth, N., Schwendt, K., Fotin-Mleczek, M., Mueller, S. O., & Petsch, B. (2021) · npj Vaccines · doi:10.1038/s41541-021-00311-w · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Mok, C. K. P., Cohen, C. A., Cheng, S. M. S., Chen, C., Kwok, K., Yiu, K., Chan, T., Bull, M., Ling, K. C., Dai, Z., et al. (2022) · Respirology · doi:10.1111/resp.14191 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
“7–11 The safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of these vaccines have been evaluated in separate clinical trials, 12–14 but there are few ‘head-to-head’ comparisons of different vaccines.”
Antigenic cartography of SARS-CoV-2 reveals that Omicron BA.1 and BA.2 are antigenically distinct
Mykytyn, A. Z., Rissmann, M., Kok, A., Rosu, M. E., Schipper, D., Breugem, T. I., van den Doel, P. B., Chandler, F., Bestebroer, T., de Wit, M., et al. (2022) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abq4450 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasuring immunity to SARS-CoV-2 infection: comparing assays and animal models
Khoury, D. S., Wheatley, A. K., Ramuta, M. D., Reynaldi, A., Cromer, D., Subbarao, K., O’Connor, D. H., Kent, S. J., & Davenport, M. P. (2020) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-020-00471-1 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Protective activity of mRNA vaccines against ancestral and variant SARS-CoV-2 strains
Ying, B., Whitener, B., VanBlargan, L. A., Hassan, A. O., Shrihari, S., Liang, C.-Y., Karl, C. E., Mackin, S., Chen, R. E., Kafai, N. M., et al. (2022) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.abm3302 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Preclinical evaluation of a SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine PTX-COVID19-B
Liu, J., Budylowski, P., Samson, R., Griffin, B. D., Babuadze, G., Rathod, B., Colwill, K., Abioye, J. A., Schwartz, J. A., Law, R., et al. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abj9815 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
CVnCoV protects human ACE2 transgenic mice from ancestral B BavPat1 and emerging B.1.351 SARS-CoV-2
Hoffmann, D., Corleis, B., Rauch, S., Roth, N., Mühe, J., Halwe, N. J., Ulrich, L., Fricke, C., Schön, J., Kraft, A., et al. (2021) · doi:10.1101/2021.03.22.435960 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationCOVID-19 highlights the model dilemma in biomedical research
Adhikary, P. P., Ul Ain, Q., Hocke, A. C., & Hedtrich, S. (2021) · Nature Reviews Materials · doi:10.1038/s41578-021-00305-z · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Neutrophil Extracellular Traps as Prognostic Markers in COVID-19: A Welcome Piece to the Puzzle
Ondracek, A. S., & Lang, I. M. (2021) · Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology · doi:10.1161/atvbaha.120.315633 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
- Authors
- Muñoz-Fontela, C., Dowling, W. E., Funnell, S. G. P., Gsell, P.-S., Riveros-Balta, A. X., Albrecht, R. A., Andersen, H., Baric, R. S., Carroll, M. W., Cavaleri, M., Qin, C., Crozier, I., Dallmeier, K., de Waal, L., de Wit, E., Delang, L., Dohm, E., Duprex, W. P., Falzarano, D., Finch, C. L., Frieman, M. B., Graham, B. S., Gralinski, L. E., Guilfoyle, K., Haagmans, B. L., Hamilton, G. A., Hartman, A. L., Herfst, S., Kaptein, S. J. F., Klimstra, W. B., Knezevic, I., Krause, P. R., Kuhn, J. H., Le Grand, R., Lewis, M. G., Liu, W.-C., Maisonnasse, P., McElroy, A. K., Munster, V., Oreshkova, N., Rasmussen, A. L., Rocha-Pereira, J., Rockx, B., Rodríguez, E., Rogers, T. F., Salguero, F. J., Schotsaert, M., Stittelaar, K. J., Thibaut, H. J., Tseng, C.-T., Vergara-Alert, J., Beer, M., Brasel, T., Chan, J. F. W., García-Sastre, A., Neyts, J., Perlman, S., Reed, D. S., Richt, J. A., Roy, C. J., Segalés, J., Vasan, S. S., Henao-Restrepo, A. M., & Barouch, D. H.
- Affiliations
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (US)
- Public Health England (GB)
- World Health Organization (CH)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- European Medicines Agency (NL)
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College (CN)
- Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research (US)
- Rega Institute for Medical Research (BE)
- University of Alabama at Birmingham (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- University of Saskatchewan (CA)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- University of Maryland, Baltimore (US)
- Erasmus MC (NL)
- Emulate (United States) (US)
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (US)
- Bioqual (US)
- Inserm (FR)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (US)
- Wageningen University & Research (NL)
- Columbia University (US)
- German Center for Infection Research (DE)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston (US)
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (DE)
- University of Hong Kong (HK)
- University of Iowa (US)
- Tulane University (US)
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (AU)
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Barouch, Dan H.
- ORCID
- Dowling, William E.
- Funnell, Simon G. P.
- Albrecht, Randy A.
- Andersen, Hanne
- Baric, Ralph S.
- Carroll, Miles W.
- Cavaleri, Marco
- Qin, Chuan
- Crozier, Ian
- Dallmeier, Kai
- de Wit, Emmie
- Delang, Leen
- Dohm, Erik
- Duprex, W. Paul
- Falzarano, Darryl
- Finch, Courtney L.
- Frieman, Matthew B.
- Graham, Barney S.
- Gralinski, Lisa E.
- Guilfoyle, Kate
- Haagmans, Bart L.
- Hamilton, Geraldine A.
- Hartman, Amy L.
- Herfst, Sander
- Kaptein, Suzanne J. F.
- Klimstra, William B.
- Krause, Philip R.
- Kuhn, Jens H.
- Le Grand, Roger
- Lewis, Mark G.
- Liu, Wen-Chun
- Maisonnasse, Pauline
- McElroy, Anita K.
- Munster, Vincent
- Oreshkova, Nadia
- Rasmussen, Angela L.
- Rockx, Barry
- Rodríguez, Estefanía
- Rogers, Thomas F.
- Salguero, Francisco J.
- Schotsaert, Michael
- Stittelaar, Koert J.
- Thibaut, Hendrik Jan
- Tseng, Chien-Te
- Beer, Martin
- Chan, Jasper F. W.
- García-Sastre, Adolfo
- Neyts, Johan
- Perlman, Stanley
- Reed, Douglas S.
- Roy, Chad J.
- Segalés, Joaquim
- Vasan, Seshadri S.
- Barouch, Dan H.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2020-09-23
- Volume
- 586
- Issue
- 7830
- Pages
- 509-515
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- PMC
- PMC8136862
- OpenAlex
- W3088521725
- Cited by
- 798
- References
- 92
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 58 · 2024: 86 · 2023: 131 · 2022: 204 · 2021: 262 · 2020: 28
- FWCI
- 7.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Socio-Environmental Systems Modeling (acceptedVersion)
- Lirias (KU Leuven) (acceptedVersion)
- Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion)
- Lirias (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- IRTA (Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentaries) (submittedVersion)
- OpenAgrar (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNC Libraries
- Funders
- World Health Organization
- National Institutes of Health (P51OD011104)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI148166, R01AI157155, P01AI060699, R01AI129269)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Virus Infections Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, SARS-CoV-2, animal models, preclinical testing, vaccine development, antiviral agents, therapeutic agents, vaccine candidate
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 Vaccines, Animals, Disease Models, Animal, Ferrets, Humans, Mesocricetus, Pneumonia, Viral, Primates, Viral Vaccines, Coronavirus Infections, Mice, Pandemics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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