Macrophages recycle phagocytosed bacteria to fuel immunometabolic responses
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Abstract
Macrophages specialize in phagocytosis, a cellular process that eliminates extracellular matter, including microorganisms, through internalization and degradation 1,2. Despite the critical role of phagocytosis during bacterial infection, the fate of phagocytosed microbial cargo and its impact on the host cell are poorly understood. In this study, we show that ingested bacteria constitute an alternative nutrient source that skews immunometabolic host responses. By tracing stable isotope-labelled bacteria, we found that phagolysosomal degradation of bacteria provides carbon atoms and amino acids that are recycled into various metabolic pathways, including glutathione and itaconate biosynthesis, and satisfies the bioenergetic needs of macrophages. Metabolic recycling of microbially derived nutrients is regulated by the nutrient-sensing mechanistic target of rapamycin complex C1 and is intricately tied to microbial viability. Dead bacteria, as opposed to live bacteria, are enriched in cyclic adenosine monophosphate, sustain the cellular adenosine monophosphate pool and subsequently activate adenosine monophosphate protein kinase to inhibit the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex C1. Consequently, killed bacteria strongly fuel metabolic recycling and support macrophage survival but elicit decreased reactive oxygen species production and reduced interleukin-1β secretion compared to viable bacteria. These results provide a new insight into the fate of engulfed microorganisms and highlight a microbial viability-associated metabolite that triggers host metabolic and immune responses. Our findings hold promise for shaping immunometabolic intervention for various immune-related pathologies.
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Signals from dead cells can be metabolically sensed to skew macrophage function toward a repair phenotype.
“This paradigm posits that signals from dead cells can be metabolically sensed to fundamentally skew macrophage function toward a repair phenotype (45).”
From Macrophage duality in liver diseases: heterogeneity, plasticity, and the quest for precision therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [45]
Macrophages phagocytosing dead-but not live-bacteria utilize derived nutrients to fuel synthesis of protective metabolites like glutathione and itaconate.
“Pioneering work reveals that macrophages phagocytosing dead—but not live—bacteria utilize derived nutrients to fuel the synthesis of protective metabolites like glutathione and itaconate.”
From Macrophage duality in liver diseases: heterogeneity, plasticity, and the quest for precision therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [45]
The process of dead-cargo sensing is governed by a bacterial viability-sensing pathway: dead cargo-derived cAMP sustains the intracellular AMP pool, activating AMPK and inhibiting mTORC1, thereby orchestrating a metabolic shift towards antioxidant and anti-inflammatory responses.
“This process is governed by a bacterial viability-sensing pathway: dead cargo-derived cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) sustains the intracellular adenosine monophosphate (AMP) pool, activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and inhibiting mechanistic target of rapamycin complex C1 (mTORC1), thereby orchestrating a metabolic shift towards antioxidant and anti-inflammatory responses.”
From Macrophage duality in liver diseases: heterogeneity, plasticity, and the quest for precision therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [45]
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Parsons, J. B., Mourad, A., Conlon, B. P., Kielian, T., & Fowler, V. G. (2025) · Nature Reviews Microbiology · doi:10.1038/s41579-025-01226-2 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
John, S. V., Seim, G. L., Flores, B. J. E., Votava, J. A., Urquiza, U. S., Arp, N. L., Steill, J., Freeman, J., Carnevale, L. N., Roberts, I., et al. (2025) · Nature Metabolism · doi:10.1038/s42255-025-01337-3 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Depierre, M., Pompili, C., & Niedergang, F. (2025) · Journal of Cell Science · doi:10.1242/jcs.263833 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Huo, S., Chang, L., Liu, Y., Xu, Z., Xue, M., Shi, C., Xu, G., & Wang, K. (2025) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.5c08038 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Li, Y., Liu, Y., Wei, X., Wang, C. Z., Khan, M. Z., & Ma, Q. (2026) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2026.2614115 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Li, F., Yang, D., Wu, W., Wu, K., Kong, J., Wang, J., Yang, P., & Hu, N. (2025) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.5c12305 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Macrophages and Tissue Homeostasis: From Physiological Functions to Disease Onset
Li, Y., Chen, H., & Zhou, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Bioscience-Landmark · doi:10.31083/fbl42706 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Phagocytosis: a process that shapes immune responses to engulfed meals
Li, K., & Underhill, D. M. (2025) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-025-01231-9 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Yang, Q., Yan, J., & Yang, Q. (2026) · Clinical and Translational Medicine · doi:10.1002/ctm2.70601 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Ogunware, A. E., & Kielian, T. (2025) · Current Opinion in Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.mib.2025.102612 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Yin, Z., Huang, D., Zhao, D., You, Y., Gu, J., Xie, W., Moriarty, T. F., Li, G., & Wang, X. (2025) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.5c11777 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Deng, J., Kuang, W., Chen, W., Zhou, E., Wu, Y., Yang, Z., Chen, J., Cao, X., Yin, Z., Liu, J., et al. (2025) · Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B · doi:10.1016/j.apsb.2025.12.014 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Freitag, A., Günther, K., Prados, M. C., Hochrein, S. M., Schmitz, W., Sinning, K., Zischinsky, G., Klebl, B., Ohlsen, K., Morschhäuser, J., et al. (2025) · microLife · doi:10.1093/femsml/uqaf040 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Synergistic potential of TREM2 agonists and exercise training in Alzheimer’s disease
Zhang, J., Schneider, B. A., Muguerza, E., Chung, E. K., & Hsu, C. G. (2026) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00124.2025 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Airway immunometabolic responses during pulmonary bacterial and viral infections
Wadhwa, R., Tang, E. W., Wong, L. Y. R., & Lung, T. W. F. (2025) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2025.116614 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Wang, W., Yan, L., Zhao, C.-Y., He, C., & Xing-hua, G. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1783266 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Qiao, L., Wu, L., Xiao, Y., Qiu, J., Qiao, X., Dong, X., Lei, C., Wang, W., Zhao, Y., & Hua, Z. (2026) · Journal of Hematology & Oncology · doi:10.1186/s13045-026-01827-1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Liang, Z., Long, X., Xiong, Z., Wong, P. P.-C., HUANG, S., Chen, S., Zhang, Y., Zhang, L., Leung, C., Cao, J., et al. (2026) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccell.2026.05.005 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Netting, D. J., López‐Haber, C., Hutchins, Z., Martina, J. A., Puertollano, R., & Mantegazza, A. R. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2511539122 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Lupi, O., Lain, T., Tan, J., & Benjamin, L. (2026) · American Journal of Clinical Dermatology · doi:10.1007/s40257-026-01073-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Yan, Y., Zhao, K., Pan, S.-S., Sun, Y.-L., Rao, Z., & Zhang, X. (2025) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.5c13804 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Modulation of immune cells and metabolic reprogramming in efferocytosis
Oliveira, K. C., Marcos, C., Penteado, L. D. A., Dejani, N., Moraes-Vieira, P., & Medeiros, A. (2026) · Cell Death and Disease · doi:10.1038/s41419-026-08431-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Neighbors who talk: Mitochondria-lysosome crosstalk in homeostasis
Prashar, A., & Puertollano, R. (2026) · Current Opinion in Cell Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2026.102627 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Zhang, X., Wang, S., Chen, X., Luo, H., Wang, J., Wang, S., Long, Z., He, B., Xu, X., Yu, X., et al. (2026) · Acta Biomaterialia · doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2026.03.011 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Li, N., Pang, Y., Xu, J., Elango, J., & Wu, W. (2025) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox14040437 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Amino acid and cholesterol metabolism in innate immunity
Li, W., Jin, M., Li, H., Zhong, R., Lin, Z., Shen, M., & Wang, H. (2025) · Molecular Cell · doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2025.09.019 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Metabolic responses to Staphylococcus aureus airway infection
Bünsow, D., & Winstel, V. (2025) · American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00612.2025 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Transcriptomic profiling reveals tissue-specific and sex-dimorphic lipid storage in Bufo gargarizans
Zhang, Y., Yang, X., Wang, T., Zhao, R., Zhu, Y., Hou, Y., Chen, Z., & Chen, X. (2025) · BMC Genomics · doi:10.1186/s12864-025-12221-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The regeneration model of aging and its practical implications
Dassoff, E. (2026) · Discover Medicine · doi:10.1007/s44337-025-00558-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
An endosymbiotic system based on ATP-expressing bacteria and macrophages for cancer immunotherapy
Li, W., Dong, B., Meng, D., Zhang, Y., Zeng, X., & Zhang, X. (2026) · Cell Biomaterials · doi:10.1016/j.celbio.2026.100383 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Xu, Y., Zhao, F., Lin, M., Qin, Z., Zheng, Y., Yao, N., Chen, X., Zhang, B., Cui, D., Yang, Z., et al. (2026) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2026.117083 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Shao, B., Zeng, Y., & Ju, J. (2026) · APOPTOSIS · doi:10.1007/s10495-026-02338-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Pillai, A. B. (2025) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.adx7179 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Bacteria-derived nutrient recycling: How phagocytosed bacteria regulate macrophage metabolism
Riviello, A., & Brenner, D. (2025) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2025.03.018 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Poly(hexamethylene guanidine): An Effective Compound in Tackling Persistent Bacterial Subpopulations
Liu, W., Zhang, J., & Chen, L. (2025) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms13092002 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Netting, D. J., López‐Haber, C., Hutchins, Z., Martina, J. A., Puertollano, R., & Mantegazza, A. R. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.06.11.659112 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Chen, L., Chen, Y., Zhao, M., Yang, X., Sutte, K., Lu, M., Chen, J., Zheng, X., Yang, D., & Liu, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1814879 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Recycling dead bacteria to fuel macrophage immunometabolism
O’Carroll, S. M., & O'Neill, L. A. J. (2025) · Nature Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41590-025-02117-7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
You are what you eat: metabolic recycling of phagocytosed bacteria modulates macrophage immunity
Basu, S., & Rossol, M. (2025) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-025-02222-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Liu, P., Zhang, C., Guo, M., Ai, S., Zhao, Y., Luo, R., Xu, F., & Zhang, Z. (2025) · Cytokine · doi:10.1016/j.cyto.2025.157086 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Tebeje, B. M., Hoppe, A. D., Thiex, N. W., & Swanson, J. A. (2025) · Journal of Cell Science · doi:10.1242/jcs.264398 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Shi, J.-J., Yu, J., Wang, R., Zhao, H., Su, Y.-Q., Liu, Y., Chen, R.-Y., Ding, L.-J., Yang, G.-J., & CHEN, J. (2026) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2026.116224 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cendali, F. I., Lisk, C., Argabright, A., Dzieciątkowska, M., Rana, N. K., Swindle, D. C., Stephenson, D., McAfee, J., Westover, N., Lucero, M. J., et al. (2026) · HemaSphere · doi:10.1002/hem3.70318 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationCopper Metabolism in Isolated Macrophages: Regulator of Immunity and Inflammation
Leng, X., Yu, P., Xu, Z., Xia, C., Du, R., Luo, Q., Zhu, Y., & Guo, H. (2026) · Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.3390/vetsci13060511 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Xu, J., Ding, X., Tang, J., & Qin, Y. (2026) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2026.118408 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Xiao, Q., Liu, K., Zhou, M., Peng, R., Dai, L., Zhang, R., Luo, L., Xue, Y., & Hu, Y. (2026) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2026.181563 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Immunologie: du nouveau dans le régime alimentaire des macrophages
Joyeux, L. (2025) · Option/Bio · doi:10.1016/s0992-5945(25)74767-4
Microbial trash to metabolic treasure
Dowdell, A. S., & Colgan, S. P. (2025) · Immunometabolism · doi:10.1097/in9.0000000000000067
Zou, C., Zhu, H., Tang, Y., & Guo, S. (2026) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2026.01.011
Immune Regulation of Itaconate and Its Derivatives in Liver Diseases
Ge, T., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1080/10985549.2025.2553660
Fan, Z., Chen, P., Zuo, S., Cai, K., Li, S., Qin, H., Li, R., Lee, K., Chen, T., Jin, C., et al. (2026) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2026.102924
Yang, J., Xu, S., & Naderer, T. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-7577586/v1
Xiao, Y., Liu, R., Yang, Y., Li, X., Min, Y., & Fan, W. (2025) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms13122647
He, Z., Liu, D., Zhou, Y., Zhao, Y., Dai, G., Lin, Z., Zhang, S., Dai, X., Chen, Y., Pan, J., et al. (2026) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2026.173241 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Les macrophages recyclent les bactéries pour alimenter leurs défenses antimicrobiennes
Torres, C., Lhuissier, C., & Garaude, J. (2026) · médecine/sciences · doi:10.1051/medsci/2026011
Self-citationT6SS mutants exploit itaconate to support infection of phagocytesPreprint
Beg, A. Z., Fields, B. L., Chen, Y.-T., Lung, T. W. F., Gowdy, G., Talat, A., Khan, A. U., Shah, S. S., Lewis, I. A., Riquelme, S. A., et al. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.03.11.711069
Zhang, H., Li, C., Li, T., Li, F., Cao, X., Yang, Y., Wang, D., Yuan, M., Li, Q., Liu, X., et al. (2026) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d6fo00440g
IRCI-2025 bridges global expertise to accelerate progress in cancer and infection immunology
Bardoulet, L., Bossan, A., Ceesay, A., Gery, P., Leloup, H. B., Niveau, C., Saby, A., Vuong, B. Q., & Hasan, U. A. (2026) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1093/jimmun/vkag011
Mao, M., Chen, J., Zhao, L., Li, Q., Liu, X., Liu, Y., & Zhang, L. (2026) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2026.04.022
Ecological constraints to mirror lifePreprint
Pla, J., Maull, V., Tabi, A., Shpilkina, Y., de Lorenzo, V., & Solé, R. V. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.05.07.723461
Beyond transport: Lysosomal solute carriers as orchestrators of immune signaling
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Equine antigen processing cells: Dendritic cells and macrophages
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Pleiotropic regulation of KDM6B in macrophage-associated physiological and pathological processes
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Synergistic Regulation of Biomaterials and Macrophages: A Novel Paradigm in Immunotherapy
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Acne: epidemiology, risk factors, pathogenesis, management and cutting-edge research
Li, Y., Li, G., Wang, L., Du, D., Li, J., Song, D., Li, T., Feng, P., Jiang, X., & Li, J. (2026) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-026-02964-2
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Macrophage biology and immunoregulation in health and disease.
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- Authors
- Lesbats, J., Brillac, A., Reisz, J. A., Mukherjee, P., Lhuissier, C., Fernández-Monreal, M., Dupuy, J.-W., Sequeira, A., Tioli, G., De La Calle Arregui, C., Pinson, B., Wendisch, D., Rousseau, B., Efeyan, A., Sander, L. E., D’Alessandro, A., & Garaude, J.
- Affiliations
- Université de Bordeaux (FR)
- University of Colorado Anschutz (US)
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin (DE)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (ES)
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Garaude, Johan
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2025-02-26
- Volume
- 640
- Issue
- 8058
- Pages
- 524-533
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W4407957911
- Cited by
- 74
- References
- 82
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 31
- FWCI
- 27.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- Research Square (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) (submittedVersion)
- Oskar-Bordeaux (Universite de Bordeaux) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Foundation
- Bristol-Myers Squibb
- Università Italo Francese
- Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR- 10-IDEX-03-02, 10‐IDEX‐03‐02, ANR-23-CE14-0044, ANR‐19, ANR-10-IDEX, ANR-23-CE17-0063, ANR-19-CE15-0018, ANR-10)
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (ANR-10-IDEX-03-02)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (ANR-10-IDEX-03-02)
- Université de Bordeaux (ANR-10-IDEX-03-02, ANR-10-IDEX, 10IDEX-03-02)
- Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (PID2019, ERC-2014-STG)
- Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI//10.13039/501100011033/, 501100011033, 10.13039/501100011033, MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501 100 011 033, 13039, .13039/501100011033, 10.13039, H2020, PID2019)
- H2020 European Research Council (638891)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Phagocytosis and Immune Regulation
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune cells in cancer
- Keywords
- macrophages, phagocytosis, immunometabolism, mTORC1, AMPK, cyclic AMP, glutathione synthesis, bacterial viability, reactive oxygen species, IL-1β
- MeSH terms
- RAW 264.7 Cells, Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex 1, Cyclic AMP, Amino Acids, Animals, Bacteria, Energy Metabolism, Female, Glutathione, Macrophages, Male, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Phagocytosis, Phagosomes, Succinates, Reactive Oxygen Species, Microbial Viability, Mice, Interleukin-1beta, AMP-Activated Protein Kinases
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