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Cited by 3Archaeology and ancient environmental studiesArchaeological and Geological StudiesForensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies

Evidence of neolithic cannibalism among farming communities at El Mirador cave, Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain

Open access
Saladié, Palmira, Marginedas, Francesc, Morales, Juan Ignacio, Vergès, Josep María, Allué, Ethel, Expósito, Isabel, Lozano, Marina, Martín, Patricia +6 more·2025·Scientific Reports
DOI 10.1038/s41598-025-10266-wPMC PMC12331932
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Abstract

In El Mirador cave in Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain, a unique collection of human remains provides insights into cannibalistic practices from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Six Early Bronze Age individuals (4600–4100 cal BP) showing signs of cannibalism were discovered in the early 2000s. Later excavations uncovered older remains with similar cultural modifications. A Bayesian statistical analysis of the radiocarbon dates identified a single earlier event (5709–5573 cal BP) unrelated to the Bronze Age finds. 87Sr/86Sr analysis showed the cannibalised people were of local origin. The episode coincided with the end of the Neolithic occupation, suggesting this was a not common behaviour among the cave inhabitants. Given the age of the cannibalised individuals and environmental conditions, the data does not indicate a response to famine. This study complements and expands upon our understanding of European prehistoric cannibalism. The current findings suggest that cannibalism may be linked to intergroup violence during late prehistoric periods.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

A newly isolated assemblage of 650 anthropogenically modified human remains from El Mirador cave, directly dated to 5709–5573 cal BP, is interpreted as evidence of Neolithic cannibalism. Taphonomic, isotopic, and chronological data suggest a single short episode involving local individuals, best explained as conflict-related rather than famine-driven cannibalism.

Key findings

  • The modified Neolithic assemblage comprises 650 remains, of which 239 show direct butchery evidence (cut marks, percussion marks, and/or peeling); the MNI is 11, including at least three children, two juveniles, and four adults, with one individual over 50 years old.
  • Eight directly dated specimens produced a modeled chronology of 5709–5573 cal BP, indicating a single earlier event unrelated to the Bronze Age cannibalism at MIR4; 87Sr/86Sr ratios from five femora ranged from 0.709169 to 0.710587 and suggest local origin.
  • Taphonomic modifications include 222 burned remains (69, or 31.1%, also with butchery marks), 585 pot-polished specimens, 132 cut-marked remains, 245 percussion-marked specimens, 43 peeled specimens, and 157 remains with human tooth marks; the pattern is interpreted as comprehensive butchering for meat, viscera, marrow, and brain.
  • The authors argue the evidence is inconsistent with secondary burial, violence injuries, or trophy-taking, and favor “warfare cannibalism” over famine cannibalism, given the balanced age profile and lack of clear food-scarcity signs.

Methods

  • A total of 5,056 human remains from the Central Pit, S100, and S200 at El Mirador cave were examined; 650 anthropogenically modified remains were isolated and analyzed taphonomically using a stereomicroscope at 10–40×, recording cut marks (slice, scrape, chop), percussion marks, peeling, burning, pot-polishing, and human tooth marks.
  • Age at death was estimated from dental development and cranial suture fusion; eight specimens with anthropogenic modifications were directly radiocarbon dated, and a Bayesian model was built with OxCal 4.4 and IntCal20.
  • Five femoral samples were analyzed for 87Sr/86Sr isotopes by MC-ICO-MS (as reported), with ratios adjusted relative to SRM 987.

Limitations

  • The paper states that not all modifications can be directly linked to intentional anthropogenic processing; the relationship between burning and body processing cannot be confirmed, and peeling and human tooth marks are subject to equifinality and ongoing debate.
  • The authors note that 213 additional remains have fresh-fracture features compatible with anthropogenic breakage but lack diagnostic modifications, and that the strontium isoscape model extends westward; no perimortem trauma was identified, and the conflict-related cannibalism hypothesis remains speculative.
  • Evident from the text: the remains were stratigraphically and spatially dispersed, recovered largely from reshuffled layers and burrow fillings and mixed with collective-burial and sheepfold materials, so the primary depositional context is disturbed; some individuals’ ages could not be determined, and no remains were recovered from occupations contemporaneous with the cannibalism episode.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/s41598-025-10266-w

Cites

75 of 75 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

18 of 73 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    In cases where injuries caused by interpersonal violence and cannibalistic processing overlap, it is often difficult to distinguish butchering from killing.

    “Moreover, in cases where injuries caused by interpersonal violence and cannibalistic processing overlap, it is often difficult to distinguish butchering from killing59.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [59] Schroeder, H. et al. Unraveling ancestry, kinship, and violence in a late neolithic mass grave. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 116, 10705–10710 (2019). source

      The Results and Discussion section identifies cranial fractures as evidence that the Koszyce individuals were killed by blows to the head. Searches for cannibalistic processing, butchering, and difficulty distinguishing butchering from killing found no passage addressing that diagnostic problem. (LLM, conf=0.75)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    A similar age pattern is observed at Neolithic sites in central Europe, where mass violent events involving entire communities or family groups have been recorded.

    “A similar age pattern is observed at Neolithic sites in central Europe, where mass violent events involving entire communities or family groups have been recorded59,60.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [59] Schroeder, H. et al. Unraveling ancestry, kinship, and violence in a late neolithic mass grave. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 116, 10705–10710 (2019). source
    • cites [60] Tornberg, A. & Vandkilde, H. Modelling age at death reveals nordic corded ware paleodemography. Archaeol Anthropol. Sci 17, 38 (2025). source

      The Population section discusses age-at-death patterns in Nordic Corded Ware groups and considers violence as one possible explanation. The Society and burial section describes Nordic burials, but neither section documents a comparable age pattern or mass violent events involving whole communities or family groups at central European Neolithic sites. Searches for those central European events and age patterns found no passage addressing them; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    A common feature of starvation periods is increased mortality among the most vulnerable individuals, primarily the elderly and children.

    “A common feature of starvation periods is increased mortality among the most vulnerable individuals, primarily the elderly and children58.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] Meyer, C., Lohr, C., Gronenborn, D. & Alt, K. W. The massacre mass grave of Schöneck-Kilianstädten reveals new insights into collective violence in Early Neolithic Central Europe. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 112, 11217–11222 (2015). source

      The Osteological Results describe the ages of people in a massacre grave, not mortality during starvation. The discussion of drought and reduced agricultural production in “Early Neolithic Mass Graves as Evidence for Lethal Collective Violence” does not say that starvation disproportionately kills elderly people and children. Searches for starvation, famine, and age-specific mortality found no passage addressing that claim; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    In the Iberian Peninsula, the archaeological record reveals a wide spectrum of violence, ranging from small- and medium-scale clashes to massacres of entire communities.

    “In the Iberian Peninsula, the archaeological record reveals a wide spectrum of violence, ranging from small- and medium-scale clashes46,62,70 to massacres of entire communities71,72.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [46] Moreno-Ibáñez, M. Á. et al. Death in the high mountains: evidence of interpersonal violence during late chalcolithic and early bronze age at Roc de les Orenetes (Eastern pyrenees, Spain). Am. J. Biol. Anthropol. 184, e24909 (2024). source
    • cites [62] Sanday, P. R. Divine Hunger: Cannibalism as a Cultural System (Cambridge University Press, 1986). source
    • cites [70] Mercadal, O. La Costa de can Martorell (Dosrius, El maresme, Barcelona): Muerte y violencia en una comunidad del litoral catalán durante el tercer milenio cal. BC. In (ed. Canyellas, A) III Congreso Del Neolítico En La Península Ibérica 671–680 (Dosrius, El Maresme, 2005).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [71] Fernández-Crespo, T. et al. Large-scale violence in late neolithic Western Europe based on expanded skeletal evidence from San Juan ante Portam Latinam. Sci. Rep. 13, 17103 (2023). source
    • cites [72] AlQahtani, S. J., Hector, M. P. & Liversidge, H. M. Brief communication: the London atlas of human tooth development and eruption. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 142, 481–490 (2010). source
  • Findingown data

    87Sr/86Sr analysis showed the cannibalised people were of local origin.

    “87Sr/86Sr analysis showed the cannibalised people were of local origin.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 32
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 24
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    28.7% and 25% of the remains displayed fresh fractures with curved or V-shaped outlines and oblique fracture angles.

    “Additionally, 28.7% and 25% of the remains displayed fresh fractures with curved or V-shaped outlines and oblique fracture angles29.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Saladié, P. et al. Experimental butchering of a chimpanzee carcass for archaeological purposes. PLoS One. 10, e0121208 (2015). source

      The Results (Arms and legs; page unavailable) report that 41 of 107 long-bone specimens (38.3%) had anthropogenic breakage marks, but do not give the claimed fracture-outline or angle measurements. Searches for “28.7%,” “curved or V-shaped,” and “oblique fracture angles” found no passage supporting the two percentages or those fracture characteristics. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The remains with anthropogenic modifications were stratigraphically and spatially dispersed and mixed with remains of the collective burial and sheepfold activities.

    “They were significant stratigraphically and spatially dispersed and mixed in with the remains of the collective burial and activities related to the sheepfold23.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Burguet-Coca, A. et al. The fumier sequences of El mirador: an approach to fire as a Sociocultural practice and taphonomic agent. In Prehistoric Herders and FarmersA Transdisciplinary Overview To the Archeological Record from El Mirador Cave (eds Allué, E., Martín, P., Vergès et al.) 89–110 (Springer Cham, 2022). source

      The Introduction describes an abundant archaeological record in El Mirador’s sheepfold sequence, and §3.1 discusses how burning can concentrate bones and other remains. Neither passage establishes that remains with anthropogenic modifications were stratigraphically and spatially dispersed or mixed with collective-burial remains. Searches for collective burial, human remains, and spatial distribution found no passage addressing that claim; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The human remains found in S100 and levels MIR204 and MIR205 of S200 are associated with artifact dispersion from livestock activities, which led to the accumulation of manure and other archaeological remains often subjected to periodic burning.

    “The human remains found in S100 and levels MIR204 and MIR205 of S200 are associated with artifact dispersion from these activities, which led to the accumulation of manure and other archaeological remains, often subjected to periodic burning to sanitise the space and reduce dung volume23,24.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [23] Burguet-Coca, A. et al. The fumier sequences of El mirador: an approach to fire as a Sociocultural practice and taphonomic agent. In Prehistoric Herders and FarmersA Transdisciplinary Overview To the Archeological Record from El Mirador Cave (eds Allué, E., Martín, P., Vergès et al.) 89–110 (Springer Cham, 2022). source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [24] Angelucci, D. E., Boschian, G., Fontanals, M., Pedrotti, A. & Vergès, J. M. Shepherds and karst: the use of caves and rock-shelters in the mediterranean region during the neolithic. World Archaeol. 41, 191–214 (2009). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The presence of dung layers throughout the El Mirador cave sequence suggests numerous dung-burning events inside the cave, during which other materials, including human remains, may have been mixed in and affected by the fire.

    “The presence of dung layers throughout the El Mirador cave sequence23,24 suggests numerous dung-burning events inside the cave, during which other materials, including human remains, may have been mixed in and affected by the fire.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [23] Burguet-Coca, A. et al. The fumier sequences of El mirador: an approach to fire as a Sociocultural practice and taphonomic agent. In Prehistoric Herders and FarmersA Transdisciplinary Overview To the Archeological Record from El Mirador Cave (eds Allué, E., Martín, P., Vergès et al.) 89–110 (Springer Cham, 2022). source
    • cites [24] Angelucci, D. E., Boschian, G., Fontanals, M., Pedrotti, A. & Vergès, J. M. Shepherds and karst: the use of caves and rock-shelters in the mediterranean region during the neolithic. World Archaeol. 41, 191–214 (2009). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Neolithic period is increasingly recognised as one marked by conflict and instability, driven by profound social and demographic transformations linked to the shift from foraging to farming.

    “This period is increasingly recognised as one marked by conflict and instability, driven by profound social and demographic transformations linked to the shift from foraging to farming.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [59] Schroeder, H. et al. Unraveling ancestry, kinship, and violence in a late neolithic mass grave. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 116, 10705–10710 (2019). source

      The Results and Discussion section (‘Intergroup Conflict and Violence’; page not provided) describes Neolithic massacres associated with population pressure, resource competition, and the expansion of new groups. The Concluding Remarks call the early third millennium BCE unstable and tumultuous. Neither passage links that violence to the shift from foraging to farming, and the paper’s account is narrower than a claim about the Neolithic period as a whole. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [60] Tornberg, A. & Vandkilde, H. Modelling age at death reveals nordic corded ware paleodemography. Archaeol Anthropol. Sci 17, 38 (2025). source

      The ‘Nordic Corded Ware: genetics and archaeology’ and ‘Society and burial’ sections (pages not provided) describe social friction, warfare, and demographic disruption in third-millennium Scandinavia. They do not establish that conflict across the Neolithic was driven by a shift from foraging to farming; the paper instead describes the replacement of existing Neolithic farmers by groups with pastoralist ancestry. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [65] Schulting, R. J. & Fibiger, L. Sticks, Stones, and Broken Bones: Neolithic Violence in a European PerspectiveOUP Oxford,. (2012). source
    • cites [66] Schulting, R. J. & Wysocki, M. ‘in this chambered tumulus were found cleft skulls… An assessment of the evidence for cranial trauma in the British Neolithic. Proc. Prehist. Soc. 71, 107–138 (2005). source

      The Introduction argues that violence in the British Neolithic has been underappreciated. ‘Motivation and violent performances’ links possible conflict to farming’s constraints on mobility and to an increasingly populated landscape, but presents these as possibilities rather than establishing that profound social and demographic transformations drove conflict throughout the Neolithic. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [67] Smith, M. J. Routledge,. The war to begin all wars? Contextualizing violence in Neolithic Britain. in The Routledge Handbook of the Bioarchaeology of Human Conflict (eds. Knüsel, C. & Smith, M. J.) 109–126 (2013). source
    • cites [68] Molloy, B. & Horn, C. Weapons, warriors and warfare in bronze age Europe. in The Cambridge World History of Violence 117–141Cambridge University Press, (2020). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High population pressure, competition over resources, and interactions between indigenous Mesolithic groups and incoming Neolithic farming communities often resulted in violent confrontations of varying scale.

    “High population pressure, competition over resources, and interactions between indigenous Mesolithic groups and incoming Neolithic farming communities often resulted in violent confrontations of varying scale59,60]65–68.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [59] Schroeder, H. et al. Unraveling ancestry, kinship, and violence in a late neolithic mass grave. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 116, 10705–10710 (2019). source

      The Results and Discussion section (“Intergroup Conflict and Violence”; page unavailable) links Neolithic lethal violence and massacres to population pressure, resource competition, and expansion into occupied territory. It does not identify violent confrontations specifically between indigenous Mesolithic groups and incoming Neolithic farming communities; its discussion of the Koszyce massacre instead concerns possible conflict involving Globular Amphora and Corded Ware groups. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [60] Tornberg, A. & Vandkilde, H. Modelling age at death reveals nordic corded ware paleodemography. Archaeol Anthropol. Sci 17, 38 (2025). source

      The ‘Nordic Corded Ware: genetics and archaeology’ section links defensive enclosures and weapons to friction among social groups, while ‘Society and burial’ reports skeletal evidence of violence. But the paper describes a still thinly populated landscape, not high population pressure, and does not establish resource competition or frequent violent confrontations between indigenous Mesolithic groups and incoming Neolithic farmers. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [65] Schulting, R. J. & Fibiger, L. Sticks, Stones, and Broken Bones: Neolithic Violence in a European PerspectiveOUP Oxford,. (2012). source
    • cites [66] Schulting, R. J. & Wysocki, M. ‘in this chambered tumulus were found cleft skulls… An assessment of the evidence for cranial trauma in the British Neolithic. Proc. Prehist. Soc. 71, 107–138 (2005). source

      The “Motivation and violent performances” section (page unavailable) suggests that an increasingly populated landscape and disputes over ownership and use-rights could contribute to conflict, including normally small-scale raiding. It does not establish that these pressures often resulted in violence or link that violence to encounters between indigenous Mesolithic groups and incoming Neolithic farmers. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [67] Smith, M. J. Routledge,. The war to begin all wars? Contextualizing violence in Neolithic Britain. in The Routledge Handbook of the Bioarchaeology of Human Conflict (eds. Knüsel, C. & Smith, M. J.) 109–126 (2013). source
    • cites [68] Molloy, B. & Horn, C. Weapons, warriors and warfare in bronze age Europe. in The Cambridge World History of Violence 117–141Cambridge University Press, (2020). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Epidemic or conflict-related stressors often result in high, age-nonspecific mortality, frequently including large numbers of subadults.

    “Recent paleodemographic studies, such as those on the Nordic Corded Ware population, have shown that epidemic or conflict-related stressors often result in high, age-nonspecific mortality, frequently including large numbers of subadults61.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] Alt, K. W. et al. A massacre of early neolithic farmers in the high Pyrenees at Els trocs, Spain. Sci. Rep. 10, 2131 (2020). source

      The Osteologic data section (page not provided) reports four subadults and five adults among nine victims at Els Trocs; the trauma section reports perimortem violence in all nine. This supports a conflict-related event involving children and adults, but the paper does not establish that such mortality is often age-nonspecific, address epidemics, or study a Nordic Corded Ware population. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    It is common for groups that engage in funerary endocannibalism to also practice warfare-related exocannibalism, with both forms embedded in symbolic and ritual frameworks.

    “In fact, it is common for groups that engage in funerary endocannibalism to also practice warfare-related exocannibalism, with both forms embedded in symbolic and ritual frameworks12–14,64.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [12] Conklin, B. A. Consuming Grief: Compassionate Cannibalism in an Amazonian Society (University of Texas, 2001). source
    • cites [13] Fausto, C. Feasting on people eating animals and humans in Amazonia. Curr. Anthropol. 48, 497–529 (2007). source
    • cites [14] Viláça, A. Relations between funerary cannibalism and warfare cannibalism: the question of predation. Ethnos 65, 83–106 (2000). source
    • cites [64] Fibiger, L., Ahlström, T., Meyer, C. & Smith, M. Conflict, violence, and warfare among early farmers in Northwestern Europe. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 120, e2209481119 (2023). source

      The ‘Identifying Violence and Conflict’ section discusses collective burials and group violence, but not funerary endocannibalism or warfare-related exocannibalism. Searches for those terms and for cannibalism in ritual or symbolic contexts found no passage in our copy supporting the claimed association. The References section lists a work on possible cannibalism but does not state this claim. (LLM, conf=0.75)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Outside starvation contexts, cannibalism often reflects deeply embedded symbolic, spiritual, or social beliefs.

    “Ethnographic and historical records show that, outside starvation contexts, cannibalism often reflects deeply embedded symbolic, spiritual, or social beliefs64.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] Fibiger, L., Ahlström, T., Meyer, C. & Smith, M. Conflict, violence, and warfare among early farmers in Northwestern Europe. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 120, e2209481119 (2023). source

      The section “From Site Studies to Population Perspectives: Quantifying Violence” mentions cut marks used to infer cannibalism at Jettböle, Åland, but gives no motive for it. Searches for cannibalism, starvation, ritual, and symbolic or spiritual beliefs found no passage supporting the claimed distinction between starvation and belief-driven cannibalism. (LLM, conf=0.75)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A Bayesian statistical analysis of radiocarbon dates identified a single earlier cannibalism event at El Mirador cave dated to 5709-5573 cal BP, unrelated to the Bronze Age finds.

    “A Bayesian statistical analysis of the radiocarbon dates identified a single earlier event (5709–5573 cal BP) unrelated to the Bronze Age finds.”
    • Also stated in: § Dating · hedged
      “The modeled chronology of the remains with anthropogenic modifications is 5709–5573 cal BP, which indicates that these remains correspond to slightly more recent occupations than those recorded in level MIR819.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The assemblage consists of a minimum of three children, two juveniles, and four adults.

    “The assemblage consists of a minimum of three children, two juveniles, and four adults.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Evidence of cremation, pot polishing, cut marks, percussion marks, peeling, and human tooth marks is present on different specimens in the S100/S200 sample.

    “Evidence of cremation, pot polishing, cut marks, percussion marks, peeling, and human tooth marks is present on different specimens in the sample (Table S4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The ages at death of the other two individuals could not be determined, but they were adults.

    “The ages at death of the other two individuals could not be determined, but they were adults.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    213 additional remains exhibited features compatible with fractures occurring on fresh bones, such as curved delineations and oblique angles, but no diagnostic modifications were observed to confidently attribute the breakage to anthropogenic activity.

    “This sample may be supplemented by 213 additional remains that exhibited features compatible with fractures occurring on fresh bones, such as curved delineations and oblique angles. However, no diagnostic modifications were observed on these bones to confidently attribute the breakage to anthropogenic activity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The age-at-death estimates for the seven individuals are: two under 7 years, one 10-11 years, one 14-16 years, one 15-17 years, one 20-35 years, and one over 50 years.

    “Specifically, two individuals were under 7 years of age, one was between 10 and 11 years old, one was 14 to 16 years old, one was 15 to 17 years old, one was between 20 and 35 years of age, and finally, one was over 50 years old.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Two clavicles had slicing marks on the posterior and inferior surfaces of the distal part, and incisions on the central portion of the superior, inferior, and anterior surfaces, related to neck meat extraction.

    “Within the shoulder girdle, two clavicles had slicing marks on the posterior and inferior surfaces of the distal part, and incisions on the central portion of the superior, inferior, and anterior surfaces, related to neck meat extraction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The long bones exhibited the most frequent cut marks, with 87 fragments showing evidence of defleshing and muscle extraction from the upper and lower limbs.

    “The long bones exhibited the most frequent cut marks (Table S3), with 87 fragments showing evidence of defleshing and muscle extraction from the upper and lower limbs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    One scapula bore a percussion pit and showed signs of peeling, likely related to shoulder disarticulation.

    “One scapula bore a percussion pit and showed signs of peeling, likely related to shoulder disarticulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most of the cremations show brown and black discolorations, with only five cases found to be calcined.

    “Most of these cremations show brown and black discolorations, with only five cases found to be calcined”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Five slicing marks were identified on skull fragments: one on a parietal bone, three on temporal bones, and one on a zygomatic bone, compatible with cutting the temporal and masseter muscles.

    “Five slicing marks were identified on skull fragments: one on a parietal bone, three on temporal bones, and one on a zygomatic bone, compatible with cutting the temporal and masseter muscles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The set of human remains from S100 and S200 comprises 650 remains with anthropogenic modifications.

    “It comprises 650 remains with anthropogenic modifications (Table S3), which were not observed in the remains from the funerary context but are present in those associated with the cannibalism event of MIR4.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The anthropogenic modifications observed in the S100/S200 set were not observed in the remains from the funerary context but are present in those associated with the cannibalism event of MIR4.

    “It comprises 650 remains with anthropogenic modifications (Table S3), which were not observed in the remains from the funerary context but are present in those associated with the cannibalism event of MIR4.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The fourth set of human remains was recovered during the excavation of S100 and S200, found mixed with material associated with the collective Chalcolithic burial and with activities related to the use of the cave as a sheepfold.

    “The fourth set of human remains was recovered during the excavation of S100 and S200. These bones were found mixed with material associated with the collective Chalcolithic burial and with activities related to the use of the cave as a sheepfold20.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Martín, P. et al. Springer International Publishing, Cham,. Husbandry and Wild Animal Exploitation. Characteristics and Evolution from a Multidisciplinary Perspective. in Prehistoric Herders and Farmers: A Transdisciplinary Overview to the Archeological Record from El Mirador Cave (eds. Allué, E., Martín, P. & Vergès, J. M.) 225–250 (2022). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In levels MIR6 to MIR9, the presence of Quercus, especially evergreen species, increases, indicating a decline in deciduous leaf values and drier environmental conditions.

    “In levels MIR6 to MIR9, where the latest Neolithic occupations in the cave were documented, the presence of Quercus, especially the evergreen species, increases, clearly indicating a decline in deciduous leaf values and pointing to drier environmental conditions in line with the general climatic conditions in Europe at that time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The anthropogenic modifications at El Mirador occurred across different phases of cave use, including the Bronze Age cannibalism episode documented in Level MIR4.

    “Dating results consistently point to a specific timeframe in the late Neolithic period, adding to the evidence that the anthropogenic modifications at El Mirador occurred across different phases of cave use, including the Bronze Age cannibalism episode documented in Level MIR4.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    No such patterns (absence of hands and feet, war trophies) have been identified at El Mirador, nor have cause-of-death injuries been observed.

    “In contrast, no such patterns have been identified at El Mirador, nor have cause-of-death injuries been observed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    Within the assemblage, punctures, pits, scores, furrows, scooping-out, crushing, and cracks were identified.

    “Within the assemblage, punctures, pits, scores, furrows, scooping-out, crushing, and cracks were identified.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The chronological homogeneity of the dated samples suggests that they result from a single occupational event, or various episodes separated by short time intervals.

    “The chronological homogeneity of the dated samples suggests that they result from a single occupational event, or various episodes separated by short time intervals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The presence of skull cups suggests the ceremonial consumption of these bodies, possibly involving the use of the cranial vaults as containers.

    “The presence of skull cups suggest the ceremonial consumption of these bodies, possibly involving the use of the cranial vaults as containers17.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Marginedas, F. et al. Making skull cups: butchering traces on cannibalised human skulls from five European archaeological sites. J. Of. 114, 105076 (2020). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Symmes and colleagues associate the brown heat line with bones that were exposed to fire while still fresh and already defleshed.

    “Symmes and collegues25 associate this feature with bones that were exposed to fire while still fresh and already defleshed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Symmes and collegues25

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These conflicts likely stemmed from territorial disputes or tension between neighbouring groups and newly arrived populations.

    “These conflicts likely stemmed from territorial disputes or tension between neighbouring groups and newly arrived populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Comparable interpretations have been proposed at Herxheim (Germany), where hundreds of human remains were deposited and processed, possibly during ritualised cannibalistic feasts.

    “Comparable interpretations have been proposed at sites like Herxheim (Germany), where hundreds of human remains were deposited and processed, possibly during ritualised cannibalistic feasts15.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Boulestin, B. et al. Mass cannibalism in the linear pottery culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany). Antiquity 83, 968–982 (2009). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Palynological and anthracological analyses indicate that the general environmental context at the time was a typically Mediterranean mixed forest, despite changes due to a possible decrease in rainfall.

    “However, palynological and anthracological analyses indicate that although the landscape underwent changes due to a possible decrease in rainfall, favouring less-demanding taxa regarding water requirements, the general environmental context at the time was a typically Mediterranean mixed forest54,55.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [54] Expósito, I., Burjachs, F. & Vergès, J. M. Human trace on the landscape during the holocene at El Mirador cave (Sierra de atapuerca, Spain): The palynological evidence. Holocene 27, 1201–1213 (2017). source
    • cites [55] Cano-Cano, N., Burguet-Coca, A., Euba, I., Expósito, I. & Allué, E. Forest Management and Agriculture Practices at El Mirador Cave. Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology 271–293 Preprint at (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12278-1_14 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The evidence of Neolithic cannibalism at El Mirador Cave, along with its broader intensification in Europe around 6,000 years BP, suggests that cannibalism was becoming increasingly common during this period.

    “The evidence of Neolithic cannibalism at El Mirador Cave, along with its broader intensification in Europe around 6,000 years BP, suggests that this practice was becoming increasingly common during this period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fontbrégoua (France) presents evidence of cannibalism interpreted within a conflict-related framework, with the absence of hands and feet suggesting the collection of war trophies.

    “Fontbrégoua (France) also presents evidence of cannibalism interpreted within a conflict-related framework, with the absence of hands and feet suggesting the collection of war trophies63.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] Villa, P. et al. Un Cas de cannibalisme Au néolithique. Gallia Préhistoire 29, 143–171 (1986). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A massacre has been identified at the Pyrenean site of Els Trocs (Spain); the recovered individuals include both children and adults, supporting the interpretation that the victims belonged to a socially cohesive group, possibly an extended household.

    “A massacre has also been identified at the Pyrenean site of Els Trocs (Spain); the recovered individuals include both children and adults, supporting the interpretation that the victims belonged to a socially cohesive group, possibly an extended household62.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] Sanday, P. R. Divine Hunger: Cannibalism as a Cultural System (Cambridge University Press, 1986). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Skeletal trauma, often poorly preserved or underreported, only provides a minimal estimate of the actual degree of violence.

    “However, skeletal trauma, often poorly preserved or underreported, only provides a minimal estimate of the actual degree of violence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The intensification of cannibalistic behaviour is likely due to a variety of factors, making it challenging or impossible to identify a single underlying motive.

    “This intensification of cannibalistic behaviour is likely due to a variety of factors, making it challenging or impossible to identify a single underlying motive.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Later studies suggest the possibility of violence at Herxheim, as evidenced by perimortem cranial injuries and connections to LBK-period massacres.

    “While originally interpreted as ceremonial, later studies suggest the possibility of violence, as evidenced by perimortem cranial injuries and connections to LBK-period massacres33.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Boulestin, B. & Coupey, A. S. Cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture: the Human Remains from Herxheim (Archaeopress Publishing Limited, 2015). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These features lend weight to the hypothesis of 'warfare cannibalism,' in which the victims, likely a nuclear or extended family, may have been killed in a single event by a neighbouring or external group.

    “Together, these features lend weight to the hypothesis of ‘warfare cannibalism,’ in which the victims, likely a nuclear or extended family, may have been killed in a single event by a neighbouring or external group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Many lethal injuries leave no skeletal trace.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The pattern of conflict continued into the Chalcolithic and intensified in the Bronze Age.

    “This pattern of conflict continued into the Chalcolithic and intensified in the Bronze Age69.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Moreno-Ibáñez, M. Á., Saladié, P., Morales, J. I., Cebrià, A. & Fullola, J. M. Inhumation and cremation: identifying funerary practices and reuse of space through forensic taphonomy at Cova Foradada (Calafell, Spain). Archaeol Anthropol. Sci 14, 57 (2022). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The hypothesis that the El Mirador assemblage reflects a case of conflict-related cannibalism is consistent with a growing body of archaeological evidence pointing to widespread inter-group violence during the Neolithic.

    “Although still speculative, the hypothesis that the El Mirador assemblage reflects a case of conflict-related cannibalism is consistent with a growing body of archaeological evidence pointing to widespread inter-group violence during the Neolithic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The findings from El Mirador Cave suggest that cannibalism may fall within the same spectrum of violent practices, possibly reflecting the deeper social tensions and conflict dynamics characteristic of Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities.

    “Within this broader context, the findings from El Mirador Cave suggest that cannibalism may fall within the same spectrum of violent practices, possibly reflecting the deeper social tensions and conflict dynamics characteristic of Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The selection of specimens for radiocarbon dating ensured analysis of at least one bone from each level, including those with reworked sediments.

    “We also considered the stratigraphic distribution of the specimens in the selection process to ensure the analysis of at least one bone from each level, including those with reworked sediments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The measured 87Sr/86Sr ratios were corrected for mass bias and isobaric interference.

    “The measured 87Sr/86Sr ratios were corrected for mass bias and isobaric interference.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Fracture surfaces were analysed following Villa and Mahieu's criteria to distinguish fresh breaks from dry breaks.

    “Fracture surfaces were analysed following Villa and Mahieu’s79 criteria to distinguish fresh breaks characterized by curved and V-shaped delineations with oblique angles from dry breaks with transverse fracture surfaces and right angles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Villa and Mahieu’s79

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Strontium was isolated and analysed following the methods described by Pourmand et al. and Pourmand and Dauphas.

    “Strontium was isolated from the samples by extraction chromatography and analysed by MC-ICO-MS (Thermo Fisher Neotune PlusTM) following the methods described by Pourmand et al.82 and Pourmand and Dauphas83”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pourmand et al.82 Pourmand, A., Prospero, J. M. & Sharifi, A. Geochemical fingerprinting of trans-Atlantic African dust based on radiogenic Sr-Nd-Hf isotopes and rare Earth element anomalies. Geology 42, 675–678 (2014). source
    • cites Pourmand and Dauphas83

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Human tooth marks were identified considering their location on the bones, morphology, and combination of modifications.

    “Human tooth marks were identified considering their location on the bones, morphology, and combination of modifications31.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Saladié, P., Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A., Díez, C., Martín-Rodríguez, P. & Carbonell, E. Range of bone modifications by human chewing. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40, 380–397 (2013). source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Cut marks were identified using the proposals of Potts and Shipman and the morphological criteria of Domínguez-Rodrigo et al.

    “Cut marks were identified based on the proposals of Potts and Shipman75 and the morphological criteria of Domínguez-Rodrigo et al.76.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Potts and Shipman75

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Domínguez-Rodrigo et al.76

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Specimens not meeting the criteria for tooth mark assignment were excluded from the described results.

    “When the criteria for assignment were not met, the actor responsible for the tooth mark was considered indeterminate, and the specimens were excluded from the described results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The complete surface of each bone was examined using a stereomicroscope with magnifications ranging from 10 to 40 and direct and oblique lighting.

    “The complete surface of each bone was examined using a stereomicroscope (OPTHEC 120HZ) with magnifications ranging from 10 to 40 with direct and oblique lighting.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The final 87Sr/86Sr ratio was adjusted relative to the accepted value for SRM 987, allowing comparison with literature measurements.

    “The final ratio was further adjusted relative to the accepted value of 0.710248 ± 0.00000387 for the SRM 987, allowing for comparison with literature measurements of radiogenic Sr isotopes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
52 of 52

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Famine-driven cannibalism would be detectable through the age of the cannibalised individuals and environmental conditions.

    “Given the age of the cannibalised individuals and environmental conditions, the data does not indicate a response to famine.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A common behaviour would be represented by remains throughout the occupation rather than a single episode at the end.

    “The episode coincided with the end of the Neolithic occupation, suggesting this was a not common behaviour among the cave inhabitants.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The taphonomic modifications (cut marks, percussion marks, peeling, human tooth marks) observed on the S100/S200 remains are the result of intentional anthropogenic butchery and cannibalism.

    “Evidence of cremation, pot polishing, cut marks, percussion marks, peeling, and human tooth marks is present on different specimens in the sample (Table S4).”
    “Therefore, the set of specimens with signs directly related to the butchery processing of the skeletons (cut and percussion marks and peeling) consists of a total of 239 human remains (Table S4), each of which shows one or more of these modifications.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cremation of human remains can result from various intentional and unintentional processes.

    “The cremation of remains can result from various intentional and unintentional processes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The population of cannibalised individuals at El Mirador was of local or regional origin.

    “The funerary scenario should be taken into consideration, given that the population of cannibalised individuals was of local or regional origin.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many lethal injuries leave no skeletal trace.

    “Although no perimortem trauma has been identified on the remains, this does not invalidate the hypothesis, as many lethal injuries leave no skeletal trace.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Short-term, high-impact events such as crop failures, severe winters, or parasitic outbreaks may leave little to no detectable trace in the archaeological record.

    “Short-term, high-impact events—such as crop failures, severe winters, or parasitic outbreaks—may leave little to no detectable trace in the archaeological record, despite their potentially significant impact on prehistoric communities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The circumstances leading to famine are not always the result of long-term environmental trends accessible through archaeological proxies.

    “Furthermore, it is also important to exercise caution, as the circumstances leading to famine are not always the result of long-term environmental trends accessible through archaeological proxies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Bones exhibiting a smooth, shiny, and translucent surface indicate bone boiling.

    “Additionally, bones exhibiting a smooth, shiny, and translucent surface were recorded, as these characteristics suggest bone boiling.”
9 of 9

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Percussion-mark count exceeds the stated total of directly butchered remains

    Major

    The paper says 239 remains have at least one of cut marks, percussion marks, or peeling. It later reports 245 specimens with percussion marks alone, so the combined total cannot be 239.

  • Listed peeling categories do not account for 43 specimens

    Minor

    The three listed categories total at most 40 specimens. Because two specimens are explicitly counted in both the classic and general categories, they account for only 38 distinct specimens, leaving five of the reported 43 unexplained.

    Reported 43 · recomputed 40

  • Pot-polishing count points to an unrelated table

    Minor

    The text cites Table 1 for the count of 585 pot-polished bones, but Table 1 is labelled and populated as strontium-isotope results for five samples; it does not report that count.

  • One of five strontium ratios is outside the stated range

    Minor

    The table gives one individual's adjusted ratio as 0.710587, above the stated upper bound of 0.7099. Thus the claim that all five ratios fall in that range contradicts the table.

4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Varela-Gomes, M. Castelo Belinho (Algarve): a ritualização funerária em meados do V milénio AC. in Os últimos caçadores-recolectores e as primeiras comunidades produtoras do sul da Península Ibérica e do norte de Marrocos: actas do workshop (Faro 2–4 Novembro de 2009) (eds. Gibaja, J. F. & Carvalho, A. F.) 69–79 (Universidade do Algarve Faro, 2010).
  2. Molist, M. et al. Los orígenes del megalitismo en Cataluña en el marco de las prácticas funerarias del Neolítico. in Actas del Congreso Internacional sobre Megalitismo y otras manifestaciones funerarias contemporáneas en su contexto sociconómico y cultural. Munibe (suplemento) (eds. Fernández-Eraso, J. & Mujika, J. A.) vol. 32 212–224 (2010).
  3. Delibes, G., Alonso, O., Estremera, M. S. & Pastor, J. F. ¿Sepultura o reliquia? A propósito de Un Cráneo Hallado En ambiente habitacional En La Cueva de La vaquera (Segovia). SAGVNTVM Extra. 2, 429–434 (1999).
  4. Botella, M. C. Restos Humanos Eneolíticos Con incisiones En La provincia de Granada. Anales Del. Desarrollo. 17, 401–423 (1973).
  5. Lambert, P. M. Patterns of violence in prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies of coastal Southern California. In Troubled Times Vol. 3 (eds Martin, D. L. & Frayer, D. W.) 77–109 (Gordon and Breach, 1997).
  6. Mercadal, O. La Costa de can Martorell (Dosrius, El maresme, Barcelona): Muerte y violencia en una comunidad del litoral catalán durante el tercer milenio cal. BC. In (ed. Canyellas, A) III Congreso Del Neolítico En La Península Ibérica 671–680 (Dosrius, El Maresme, 2005).

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Saladié, P., Marginedas, F., Morales, J. I., Vergès, J. M., Allué, E., Expósito, I., Lozano, M., Martín, P., Iglesias-Bexiga, J., Fontanals, M., Marsal, R., Hernando, R., Burguet-Coca, A., & Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A.
Affiliations
  • Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
  • Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (ES)
  • Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ES)
  • Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana (ES)
  • Leiden University (NL)
Corresponding author
  • Saladié, Palmira
  • Marginedas, Francesc
ORCID
Venue
Scientific Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2025-08-07
Volume
15
Issue
1
Pages
26648-26648
ISSN
2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s41598-025-10266-w
PMC
PMC12331932
OpenAlex
W4413042924
Semantic Scholar
edddc5b0499aebf8077bafa032f84330136e2209
Cited by
3
References
69
Citations by year
2026: 3
FWCI
2.20
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
  • Dipòsit Digital de Documents de la UAB (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion)
  • Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (PID2021-122355NB-C32)
  • Generalitat de Catalunya (SGR2021-01239, SGR2021-01237)
  • Universitat Rovira i Virgili (2022PFR-URV-64)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Archaeological and Geological Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies
Keywords
cannibalism, Neolithic, Early Bronze Age, human remains, strontium isotope analysis, radiocarbon dating, intergroup violence, European prehistory, agricultural communities
MeSH terms
Agriculture, Archaeology, Bayes Theorem, Cannibalism, Humans, Spain, History, Ancient, Radiometric Dating, Caves

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-17.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-17.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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