Instructional Efficiency: Revisiting the Original Construct in Educational Research
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This article revisits Paas and Van Merriënboer's (1993) Paas, F. and Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. 1993. The efficiency of instructional conditions: An approach to combine mental effort and performance measures. Human Factors., 35: 737–743. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] measure of instructional efficiency, which can be applied by educational researchers to compare the effects of different instructional conditions on learning. This measure relied on performance and mental effort on the test, and as such gave an indication of the quality of learning outcomes. The acquisition of more (less) efficient cognitive schemata is indicated by combinations of high (low) performance and low (high) mental effort. This instructional efficiency measure has become widely adopted, but in an adapted form that incorporates mental effort invested in the learning phase instead of the test phase. This article demonstrates that the adaptation has important consequences for the construct of instructional efficiency and for the type of conclusions that can be drawn. Examples are given to illustrate the various implications of different combinations of mental effort and performance measures in the light of more contemporary developments in educational research.
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van Gog and Paas (2008) state that the outcomes of the effort and difficulty questions in the efficiency formula are completely opposite.
“van Gog and Paas (2008, p. 23) even state that '' … the outcomes of the effort and difficulty questions in the efficiency formula are completely opposite''.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as van Gog and Paas 2008
The majority of studies have used a cognitive load rating associated with the learning phase; very few have used a cognitive load rating associated with the testing phase.
“A recent overview by van Gog and Paas (2008) shows indeed that the majority of studies have used a cognitive load rating associated with the learning phase; very few studies have used a cognitive load rating associated with the testing phase.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as van Gog and Paas (2008)
The conclusion by van Gog and Paas (2008) that the original measure is more suitable for increasing germane load and the learning-phase measure for reducing extraneous load is not justified.
“Van Gog and Paas conclude that the original measure (using cognitive load during the test phase) is more suitable when instructional measures aim to increase germane load, and the measure using cognitive load in the learning phase is more suited for situations in which the intention is to reduce extraneous load. This does not seem to be justified.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as van Gog and Paas (2008)
The measurement of cognitive load during learning is often an overall score and only gives an indication of its effectiveness or ineffectiveness for learning after combining it with the performance score on an individual posttest.
“Because the measurement of cognitive load during learning is often an overall score and only gives an indication of its effectiveness or ineffectiveness for learning after combining it with the performance score on an individual posttest (Van Gog and Paas 2008), conclusions on the different kinds of imposed cognitive load (i.e., intrinsic, germane, and extraneous) and the associated effectiveness”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as Van Gog and Paas 2008
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Scheiter, K., Ackerman, R., & Hoogerheide, V. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09555-9 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Benefits of guided self-management of attention on learning accounting.
Sithole, S. T. M., Chandler, P., Abeysekera, I., & Paas, F. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000127 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationFischer, K., Sullivan, A. M., Cohen, A. P., King, R. W., Cockrill, B. A., & Besche, H. C. (2023) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-023-04325-x · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Managing Element Interactivity in Equation Solving
Ngu, B. H., Phan, H. P., Yeung, A. S., & Chung, S. F. (2018) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-016-9397-8 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
- Authors
- van Gog, T., & Paas, F.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- ORCID
- Paas, Fred
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2008-01-28
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 16-26
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1985197632
- Semantic Scholar
- e101f1d3f8e5190c8bb6b8d5c597f698b00ebfbb
- Cited by
- 473
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 34.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- research.ou.nl
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Keywords
- teaching efficiency, cognitive effort, learning performance, cognitive schemas, construct validity, instructional conditions, learning outcomes
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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