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Cited by 4Amazonian Archaeology and EthnohistoryArchaeological Research and ProtectionArchaeology and ancient environmental studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 54 of the 55 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 85 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

In between the Sites: Understanding Late Holocene Manteño Agricultural Contexts in the Chongón-Colonche Mountains of Coastal Ecuador through UAV-Lidar and Excavation

Open access
Garzón-Oechsle, Andrés, Johanson, Erik, Nagarajan, Sudhagar, Martínez, Valentina·2025·Journal of Field Archaeology
DOI 10.1080/00934690.2024.2439223
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Abstract

Mapping the terrain surrounding concentrations of documented Manteño (ca. a.d. 650–1700) stone architecture within 1.2 km² of the cloud forests of Bola de Oro in southern Manabí, Ecuador using an Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based lidar Mobile Mapping System (MMS) revealed a modified landscape of agricultural systems. The resulting Digital Terrain Models (DTMs), subsequent ground-truthing, and excavation show a modified Manteño landscape of agricultural terraces, drainage channels, and water retention ponds tailored to the storage and distribution of water brought by seasonal rains and by marine layers precipitating at these higher elevations. Such a massive human investment in this challenging landscape was most likely a result of the Chongón-Colonche Mountains being the most resistant environments to the extreme climate changes brought by El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) during the climatic shifts of the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA, ca. a.d. 950–1250) and the Little Ice Age (LIA, ca. a.d. 1400–1700).

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

UAV-lidar and excavation in the Bola de Oro cloud forests of coastal Ecuador reveal a Manteño agricultural landscape of terraces, drainage channels, and water retention ponds around stone architecture. The authors argue these modifications were investments in higher-elevation, less ENSO-affected environments for water and food security.

Key findings

  • UAV-lidar mapped 1.2 km² and ground-truthing identified 15 cultivation terraces or terrace groups, five water retention ponds, three water drainage channels, and eight previously unidentified Manteño structures with stone foundations.
  • The excavated Las Tusas terrace (222 masl; 180 m² flat space) had a partial stone retaining wall and yielded 22 Manteño pottery sherds from at least five vessels, seven comal fragments, and two daub fragments; dates span ca. 655–550 to 490–320 CAL B.P. (A.D. 1295–1400 to 1460–1630), with a charred maize kernel at ca. 520–455 CAL B.P. (A.D. 1430–1495).
  • The Río Blanco terrace (172 masl; 1000 m² flat space; retaining wall 3–4 m wide) produced 80 Manteño ceramic sherds, three chalcedony flakes, two daub fragments, and four heat-altered sandstone stones; a charcoal date of ca. 900–730 CAL B.P. (A.D. 1050–1220) is the oldest from a Manteño context in Bola de Oro.
  • The El Tigre water retention pond (179 masl; 60 m² concave space; clay berm 85 cm deep; 51 m³ container; potentially 13,400 gallons) contained only a small daub piece; dates from the mid-19th to early 20th century A.D. suggest sediment deposition occurred after abandonment.

Methods

  • Seven UAV flights in December 2020–January 2021 used a custom Mobile Mapping System with a Velodyne HDL-32E scanner, Geo-iNAV IMU, GPS, Raspberry Pi, and DJI Matrice 600; flights were at 70 m altitude, 30 m transects, and 5 m/s, covering 1.2 km².
  • Point clouds were georeferenced to WGS 84 UTM 17S/EGM 2008; DTMs were created at 50 cm horizontal and 20 cm vertical resolution and classified by slope, followed by ground truthing and three 50 cm wide trenches excavated to subsoil.
  • Artifacts were inventoried, and charcoal was radiocarbon dated at the Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia, then calibrated with OxCal 4.4.4 using SHCal20; details are in Garzón-Oechsle, Johanson, and Martínez 2023.

Limitations

  • The paper states that UAV lidar cannot provide airplane- or satellite-scale coverage, that its denser point cloud can obscure large-scale landscape modifications, and that autonomous flying was not possible due to drastic elevation changes, so flights were manually piloted.
  • The paper states that the El Tigre pond dates are post-abandonment (mid-19th to early 20th century A.D.), that only a small daub piece was found there, and that the scale of Manteño effort in Salangome is still not apparent.
  • Evident from the text: interpretations rest on three excavated trenches within a 1.2 km² survey, and some comparisons to Hojas-Jaboncillo/Picoazá are explicitly suspected rather than demonstrated.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/00934690.2024.2439223

Cites

54 of 54 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

2 of 85 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingown data

    The retaining wall of the Río Blanco terrace is associated with a construction fill with stones, gravel, and Manteño artifacts deposited above the subsoil.

    “This wall is associated with a construction fill with stones, gravel, and Manteño artifacts deposited above the subsoil, showing evidence that they cut the slope and spread fill to level the landform.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The exploration trench revealed in profile that the stone retaining wall extends below ground, covering the entire footprint of the Las Tusas terrace.

    “The exploration trench revealed in profile that the stone retaining wall extends below ground, covering the entire footprint of the terrace (Figure 6A).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    On the flat part of the Río Blanco terrace where the STP was excavated, two anthropogenic surfaces can be seen.

    “On the flat part of the terrace where the STP was excavated, two anthropogenic surfaces can be seen.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    UAV-lidar MMS mapping of 1.2 km2 of cloud forests of Bola de Oro in southern Manabí, Ecuador revealed a modified landscape of agricultural systems.

    “Mapping the terrain surrounding concentrations of documented Manteño (ca.A.D. 650-1700) stone architecture within 1.2 km² of the cloud forests of Bola de Oro in southern Manabí, Ecuador using an Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based lidar Mobile Mapping System (MMS) revealed a modified landscape of agricultural systems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The lidar drone flight carried out in the upper Río Blanco Basin managed to cover 1.2 km2 of forest in the Las Tusas, La Mocora, Río Blanco, and El Tigre Valleys.

    “The lidar drone flight carried out in the upper Río Blanco Basin managed to cover 1.2 km² of forest in the Las Tusas, La Mocora, Río Blanco, and El Tigre Valleys.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 46
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 34

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Starting in the 10th century A.D., the climate became drier, the cold Humboldt marine current became stronger, and the rainy seasons less reliable, because of higher global temperatures during the Medieval Climate Anomaly.

    “However, starting in the 10th century A.D. (Cobb et al. 2003;Nelson and Sachs 2016;Seillès et al. 2016), the climate became drier, the cold Humboldt marine current became stronger, and the rainy seasons less reliable due to higher global temperatures during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cobb et al. 2003 source
    • cites Nelson and Sachs 2016 source

      The opening passage reports drier conditions at the onset of the Medieval Warm Period (approximately 800–1300 CE). The ‘Galápagos Hydroclimate of the Common Era’ section links a dry interval to reduced El Niño-like conditions, but does not report a stronger Humboldt Current or less reliable rainy seasons. It attributes the drying to ENSO changes, not to higher global temperatures; the cited passages provide no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Seillès et al. 2016 source

      In the discussion of the last 1000 years (section 5.4, lines 421–425; page unavailable), the paper describes dry conditions and reduced rainfall between 1000 and 750 cal yr BP, broadly consistent with drying around the 10th century. It does not attribute that interval to higher global temperatures during the Medieval Climate Anomaly; instead, it associates the dryness with low local sea-surface temperatures and a northerly ITCZ. Its discussion of stronger Humboldt Current influence concerns other intervals, not this one. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    The clay is spread out beneath the sediments accumulated over time, creating a 51 m3 container that can potentially hold up to 13,400 gallons of water.

    “The clay is spread out beneath the sediments accumulated over time, creating a 51 m³ container that can potentially hold up to 13,400 gallons of water.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    The cultivation terrace identified in the Las Tusas Valley is 222 masl.

    “The cultivation terrace identified in the Las Tusas Valley is 222 masl (Figure 4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The stone wall contains the oldest anthropogenic surface, while the most recent extends above the wall.

    “The stone wall contains the oldest, while the most recent extends above the wall.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The flat space of the Las Tusas terrace covers 180 m2 supported by a partial retaining wall created by two lines of large stones.

    “In total, the flat space of the terrace covers 180 m² supported by a partial retaining wall created by two lines of large stones (Figure 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    This set of water retention ponds is located 50 m away from a third one and a Manteño structure with stone foundations on the crest of the hill's edge.

    “This set of water retention ponds is located 50 m away from a third one and a Manteño structure with stone foundations on the crest of the hill's edge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Inside the retaining wall, the stratum is wet to the touch, and the clay has enough humidity to stick together; outside the stone wall, the stratum is dry and easily crumbles into finer particles.

    “Inside the retaining wall, this stratum is wet to the touch, and the clay has enough humidity to stick together.Outside the stone wall, the stratum is dry and easily crumbles into finer particles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    This landscape modification is part of a complex of two water retention ponds 12 m apart of similar size connected by a drainage channel.

    “This landscape modification is part of a complex of two water retention ponds 12 m apart of similar size connected by a drainage channel.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Both surfaces of the Río Blanco terrace contain Manteño artifacts, but the majority in quantity and size were found in the stratum associated with the creation and use of the terrace.

    “Both surfaces contain Manteño artifacts, but the majority in quantity and size were found in the stratum associated with the creation and use of the terrace.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Both anthropogenic surfaces of the Las Tusas terrace contained Manteño artifacts, but the majority in quantity and size was found at the interface.

    “Both surfaces contained Manteño artifacts, but the majority in quantity and size was found at the interface, suggesting an important change in terrace activity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    A Manteño stone structure is located 30 m upslope from the Las Tusas terrace.

    “In addition, a Manteño stone structure is located 30 m upslope from the terrace.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    The accumulated sediments are colluvial with two dry sediments, with gravel interspersed with two episodes of hydric sediments.

    “The accumulated sediments are colluvial with two dry sediments, with gravel interspersed with two episodes of hydric sediments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The Río Blanco agricultural terrace produced charcoal for a single date, with a date range of ca.900-730 CAL B.P. (A.D. 1050-1220).

    “The Río Blanco agricultural terrace only produced charcoal for a single date: the date range obtained of ca.900-730 CAL B.P. (A.D. 1050-1220) is the oldest from a Manteño context found in Bola de Oro (Garzón-Oechsle, Johanson, and Martínez 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In total, 22 Manteño pottery sherds from at least five different vessels, seven fragments of a Manteño comal, and two daub fragments were found in the Las Tusas terrace.

    “In total, 22 Manteño pottery sherds from at least five different vessels, seven fragments of a Manteño comal, and two daub fragments were found (Figure 6B).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Three different Manteño landscape modifications were excavated: a cultivation terrace with a stone wall on the crest of a ridge, a cultivation terrace with a partial stone wall in a drainage between two ridges, and a water retention pond with a clay containment berm.

    “Three different Manteño landscape modifications were excavated: a cultivation terrace with a stone wall on the crest of a ridge, a cultivation terrace with a partial stone wall in a drainage between two ridges, and a water retention pond with a clay containment berm.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The subsequent field survey of those areas suspected of being modifications related to the Manteño occupation produced the identification and documentation of 15 cultivation terraces or groups of terraces, five water retention ponds, and three water drainage channels.

    “The subsequent field survey of those areas suspected of being modifications related to the Manteño occupation produced the identification and documentation of 15 cultivation terraces or groups of terraces, five water retention ponds, and three water drainage channels (Figure 3A).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    The agricultural terrace identified in the Río Blanco Valley is 172 masl.

    “The agricultural terrace identified in the Río Blanco Valley is 172 masl (Figure 7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The flat space of the Río Blanco terrace covers 1000 m2 supported by a large retaining wall 3-4 m wide that surrounds the contour of the western and northern slope of the terrace.

    “In total, the flat space of the terrace covers 1000 m² supported by a large retaining wall 3-4 m wide that surrounds the contour of the western and northern slope of the terrace (Figure 8).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Ground-truthing of the flat areas uncovered a modified landscape of cultivation terraces, water retention ponds, and water distribution channels surrounding Manteño architecture, in addition to more stone foundations.

    “In addition to more stone foundations, the ground-truthing of these flat areas uncovered a modified landscape of cultivation terraces, water retention ponds, and water distribution channels surrounding Manteño architecture.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Manteño bench cultivation terraces appear as individual terraces, not in groups, and are not visible by lidar.

    “These terraces appear as individual terraces, not in groups, and are not visible by lidar.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given

    Manteño stone architecture is present in the upper Río Blanco Basin.

    “Manteño stone architecture in the upper Río Blanco Basin.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Some of these modifications appear in groups in Bola de Oro and are connected through water distribution channels.

    “Some of these modifications, however, appear in groups in Bola de Oro and are connected through water distribution channels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Water distribution channels also appear on the crest of ridges connecting flat areas separated by a steep slope, and as channelized drainages adjacent to residential sites with stone architecture.

    “distribution channels also appear on the crest of ridges connecting flat areas separated by a steep slope and as channelized drainages adjacent to residential sites with stone architecture.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Areas between 0 and 10° of slope tend to host residential occupations and associated agricultural spaces, areas of 0 and 20° of slope tend to be dedicated agricultural areas on gentle slopes, and areas of 20° and above tend to be left unmodified.

    “Areas between 0 and 10° of slope tend to host residential occupations and associated agricultural spaces, areas of 0 and 20° of slope tend to be dedicated agricultural areas on gentle slopes, and areas of 20° and above tend to be left unmodified.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Garzón-Oechsle 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Graber 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    There was a period of significant sociopolitical rearrangement for the entire Manteño society during the 12th century A.D., emphasizing inland sites located at higher elevations as drought impacted coastal population centers.

    “Specifically, there appears to be a period of significant sociopolitical rearrangement for the entire society during the 12th century A.D. (Touchard-Houlbert 2010), emphasizing inland sites located at higher elevations as drought impacted coastal population centers (Marcos 1973;McEwan 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Touchard-Houlbert 2010 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites Marcos 1973

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites McEwan 2003

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Ground control points (GCPs) were survey-located within scanned areas using a GNSS-RTK Leica GPS and were used to achieve cm accuracy for elevations.

    “Ground control points (GCPs) were survey-located within scanned areas using a GNSS-RTK Leica GPS.GCPs were used to achieve cm accuracy for elevations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These artifacts appear to be secondary deposits, suggesting the existence of a Manteño occupation prior to landscape modifications with stone retaining walls.

    “These artifacts appear to be secondary deposits, suggesting the existence of a Manteño occupation prior to landscape modifications with stone retaining walls.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    DTMs created of the entire coverage area have a horizontal resolution of 50 cm and a vertical resolution of 20 cm.

    “DTMs created of the entire coverage area have a horizontal resolution of 50 cm and a vertical resolution of 20 cm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The Manteño cut the slope and spread fill to level the Río Blanco terrace landform.

    “showing evidence that they cut the slope and spread fill to level the landform.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The 70 m flight altitude provided reliable data well within the 100 m limit and the 80 m recommended distance threshold for the Velodyne sensor.

    “The 70 m flight altitude also provided reliable data well within the 100 m limit and the 80 m recommended distance threshold for the Velodyne sensor.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    The chronological order of the dates demonstrates the integrity of the context and is evidence that the Manteño agricultural process did not disturb the integrity of the stratigraphy beyond the first construction and subsequent maintenance of structural elements of the terrace.

    “The chronological order of the dates demonstrates the integrity of the context and is evidence that the Manteño agricultural process did not disturb the integrity of the stratigraphy beyond the first construction and subsequent maintenance of structural elements of the terrace.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The accumulated sediments are evidence of the capacity of the water retention pond to retain water and to retain eroded sediment.

    “These sediments are evidence of the capacity of the water retention pond to retain water and, at the same time, to retain eroded sediment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The Manteño cut the slope and spread fill to level the Las Tusas terrace.

    “showing evidence that they cut the slope and spread the fill to level it.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The 30 m spacing between flight transects provided plenty of overlap between passes, assuring the minimization of data gaps by ensuring scanning from multiple angles for better vegetation penetration.

    “In addition, the 30 m spacing between flight transects provided plenty of overlap between passes, assuring the minimization of data gaps by ensuring scanning from multiple angles for better vegetation penetration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The early 1990s drought in Manabí, created by an intense and prolonged La Niña, devastated the once-profitable coffee industry in the region, forcing agricultural producers to switch from coffee plants to hardier citruses, bananas, and maize.

    “The early 1990s drought in Manabí, created by an intense and prolonged La Niña, devastated the once-profitable coffee industry in the region, forcing agricultural producers to switch from coffee plants to hardier citruses, bananas, and maize (Delgado et al. 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Delgado et al. 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The pattern of human interaction with the cloud forest tends to increase with drier weather, but communities such as Río Blanco use it constantly for resources and recreation.

    “The pattern of human interaction with this environment tends to increase with drier weather, but communities such as Río Blanco use it constantly for resources and recreation (Harris et al. 2004;Rogers-Phillips 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Harris et al. 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rogers-Phillips 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Manteño bench cultivation terraces are narrow, discontinuous, and have a retaining wall at least 50 cm high.

    “Manteño bench cultivation terraces are narrow, discontinuous, and with a retaining wall at least 50 cm high.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bohórquez 2013a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Castro-Priego et al. 2021 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In Bola de Oro, Manteño sloping dry-field terraces appear reinforced by stone buttresses, while in Hojas-Jaboncillo, they appear made of packed earth and gravel.

    “In Bola de Oro, these appear to be reinforced by stone buttresses, while in Hojas-Jaboncillo, they appear made of packed earth and gravel (Bohórquez 2013a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bohórquez 2013a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The stone-reinforced cultivation terraces expanded cultivation surfaces horizontally and helped with soil deepening.

    “Excavation of these contexts shows that the Manteño of Bola de Oro constructed cultivation terraces on ridges and drainages reinforced with stone retaining walls that expanded cultivation surfaces horizontally and helped with soil deepening.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    In Manabí, severe El Niño events can exacerbate the rainy season, with precipitation reaching five to six times the average of a neutral ENSO year.

    “In Manabí, severe El Niño events can exacerbate the rainy season, with precipitation reaching five to six times the average of a neutral ENSO year (Campos Cedeño and Mendoza Álava 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Campos Cedeño and Mendoza Álava 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Occupying and modifying these slopes and valleys gave the Manteño direct access to the cloud forest and control over the region's most reliable water and food supplies.

    “Furthermore, occupying and modifying these slopes and valleys provided the Manteño with direct access to the cloud forest and control over the region's most reliable water and food supplies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The development of small, lightweight laser scanners, UAVs, high-capacity portable batteries, and minicomputers has allowed Mobile Mapping Systems that are more affordable and quickly deployable than traditional airplane-supported lidar.

    “The development of small, lightweight laser scanners, UAVs, high-capacity portable batteries, and minicomputers has allowed for the development and application of Mobile Mapping Systems that are more affordable and quickly deployable than traditional airplane-supported lidar.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Harsh and prolonged La Niña droughts can minimize the effects of the rainy season and devastate the region's agricultural economy and drinking water supply.

    “Although not as immediate and dramatic as extreme El Niño rain events, harsh and prolonged La Niña droughts can minimize the effects of the rainy season and devastate the region's agricultural economy and drinking water supply (Vicente-Serrano et al. 2016;Zambrano Mera, Rivadeneira Vera, and Pérez-Martín 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Vicente-Serrano et al. 2016 source
    • cites Zambrano Mera, Rivadeneira Vera, and Pérez-Martín 2018 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    An extreme El Niño can also lead to drought as excessive rain tends to be concentrated within fewer months, mostly February and March.

    “An extreme El Niño can also lead to drought as excessive rain tends to be concentrated within fewer months, mostly February and March (Campos Cedeño and Mendoza Álava 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Campos Cedeño and Mendoza Álava 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Ecuadorian archaeologists have known of the importance of high elevations to the Manteño as sources of water and of political, social, and religious power.

    “Ecuadorian archaeologists have known of the importance of high elevations to the Manteño as not only sources of water but also sources of political, social, and religious power; some have gone as far as to brand the Manteño the people of the hills (Marcos 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marcos 2005

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The use of coca in coastal Ecuadorian cultures is well documented in ancient iconography and artifacts traceable back to the Early Formative more than 4000 years ago through dental calculus.

    “Usually associated with Andean cultures, the use of coca in coastal Ecuadorian cultures is well documented in ancient iconography and artifacts that can be traced back to the Early Formative more than 4000 years ago through the study of dental calculus (Klepinger, Kuhn, and Thomas 1977;Plowman 1984).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Klepinger, Kuhn, and Thomas 1977 source
    • cites Plowman 1984

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Ongoing anthropogenic climate change impacts the thermocline that influences ENSO, making extreme rainfall events more likely and exacerbating drought conditions in an already arid Manabí.

    “Our ongoing anthropogenic climate change impacts the delicate thermocline that influences ENSO (Cai et al. 2014(Cai et al. , 2015(Cai et al. , 2018;;Wang, Cai, and Santoso 2020), making extreme rainfall events more likely and exacerbating drought conditions in an already arid Manabí (Campos Cedeño and Mendoza Álava 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cai et al. 2014 source
    • cites Wang, Cai, and Santoso 2020 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites Campos Cedeño and Mendoza Álava 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Andean/Incan terrace types include bench or linear contour, sloping dry-field, and valley-floor terraces.

    “Types include bench or linear contour, sloping dry-field, and valley-floor terraces (Treacy and Denevan 1994).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Treacy and Denevan 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The high elevations of these Ecuadorian coastal mountains are islands of montane plant and animal communities that were most likely connected with similar environments in the western slopes of the Andes before the Holocene's advent.

    “The high elevations of these Ecuadorian coastal mountains are islands of montane plant and animal communities that were most likely connected with similar environments in the western slopes of the Andes before the Holocene's advent (Parker and Carr 1992).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Parker and Carr 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The marine layer and the cloud forests became central to Manteño symbology and way of life.

    “Despite their close relationship to the sea, the marine layer and the cloud forests became central to Manteño symbology and their way of life.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The Manteño began to exploit the marine layer to produce food, developing a higher reliance on inland towns such as Agua Blanca.

    “The Manteño began to exploit the marine layer to produce food, developing a higher reliance on inland towns like Agua Blanca (McEwan 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McEwan 2003

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Rogers-Phillips (2021) documented the use of pipers for snake bites, epiphytic orchid suelda con suelda for bruises and broken bones, and tobacco for general healing in Río Blanco, exemplifying the moist forests of Salangome as a living pharmacy.

    “In addition, Rogers-Phillips (2021) has also documented the use of pipers for snake bites, the epiphytic orchid suelda con suelda for bruises and broken bones, and tobacco for general healing in the community of Río Blanco, exemplifying the potential of the moist forests of Salangome as a living pharmacy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rogers-Phillips 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Colonial census records show a population decline of 98% by the 17th century A.D.

    “Colonial census records show a population decline of 98% by the 17th century A.D. (Newsome 1995)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Newsome 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The presence of these ancient plant and animal communities in the development of ENSO during the Holocene speaks of this environment's endurance to the swings of the thermocline.

    “The presence of these ancient plant and animal communities in the development of ENSO during the Holocene speaks of this environment's endurance to the swings of the thermocline.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisenone given

    Accessibility to the cloud forest depends highly on the season, general regional climate, and the state of ENSO.

    “Accessibility to this abruptly closed vegetation environment depends highly on the season, general regional climate, and the state of ENSO.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Because of a weaker Humboldt current, resurrected trading routes to the south eventually brought European colonizers and their pathogens to the region in the 16th century A.D.

    “Due to a weaker Humboldt current, the resurrected trading routes to the south eventually brought European colonizers along with their civilization-ending pathogens in the 16th century A.D. (Caviedes 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Caviedes 2001

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    In the last 20 years, Manabí has suffered from an incremental loss in yearly accumulated rain.

    “In the last 20 years, Manabí has suffered from an incremental loss in yearly accumulated rain (Cantos Victores 2018), making swings of the thermocline even more relevant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cantos Victores 2018

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Over half a million people lived on the Ecuadorian coast at contact.

    “and over half a million people on the Ecuadorian coast (Newsome 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Newsome 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Drought is still a significant factor at higher elevations in the Chongón-Colonche, as a hydric deficit exists every month except for February.

    “Drought is still a significant factor at higher elevations, as a hydric deficit exists every month except for February (Cadena 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cadena 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Manteño success meant surviving ENSO's most catastrophic climate extremes while profiting from diverse ecosystems during mild and neutral years.

    “Manteño's success meant surviving ENSO's most catastrophic climate extremes while profiting from diverse ecosystems in their territory during mild and neutral years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The cities and towns of Salangome during Manteño rule faced similar consequences of the changing phases of ENSO during their 1000-year history.
    • Rests on an assumption: During climate extremes, lower elevations of Manteño territory became distressed while mountainous landscapes were least affected.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    Manteño valley-floor terraces are created by cutting and filling within existing drainages, destroying the original draining channel.

    “These terraces are created by cutting and filling within existing drainages, destroying the original draining channel.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    A thriving spondylus shell trade industry existed in the 15th century A.D., as observed by the Spanish.

    “The return of recurring El Niño phases with the LIA during the 15th century A.D. (Nelson and Sachs 2016) meant the return of reliable rains and the thriving spondylus shell trade industry observed by the Spanish (Sámano-Xerez 1967[1527-1528]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sámano-Xerez 1967[1527-1528]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    The cloud forest's biodiversity makes it a repository for plants with a multitude of purposes, including medicinal.

    “The cloud forest's biodiversity makes it a repository for plants with a multitude of purposes, including medicinal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The abandonment of Bola de Oro appears to have been gradual but was final by the 17th century A.D.

    “The abandonment of Bola de Oro appears to have been gradual (Scott 2018) but final by the 17th century A.D. until the return of descendant communities in the second half of the 19th century A.D. (Garzón-Oechsle, Johanson, and Martínez 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Scott 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Ethnobotanist Rogers-Phillips has found other varieties of coca, including E. acuminatum, E. glaucum, and E. ruizii, supporting massive cultivation and use in the region.

    “Furthermore, ethnobotanist Rogers-Phillips (V.Rogers-Phillips, personal communication 2023) has found other varieties of coca, including E. acuminatum, E. glaucum, and E. ruizii, further supporting its massive cultivation and use in the region.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites V.Rogers-Phillips, personal communication 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    These water retention ponds are similar in construction to ponds found at lower elevations in coastal Ecuador but are a fraction of their size to fit the narrow landscape.

    “These water retention ponds are similar in construction to those found at lower elevations in coastal Ecuador (Marcos et al. 2004) but just a fraction of their size to fit in the narrow landscape.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marcos et al. 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Chongón-Colonche is a repository of water and life, so much so that its biology and geography are ubiquitous within Manteño symbology.

    “The Chongón-Colonche is a repository of water and life, so much so that its biology and geography are ubiquitous within Manteño symbology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Manteño's societal connections across the various landscapes of Salangome made them successful and resilient to ENSO changes for almost a millennium.

    “The Manteño's societal connections across the various landscapes of Salangome made them successful and resilient to the changes of ENSO for almost a millennium; however, these social connections were no match for the depopulation caused by infectious disease.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    No plant has played a more central role than coca in western South America.

    “Of these, no plant has played a more central role than coca (Erothroxylum coca) in western South America.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The most critical function of the cloud forest for ancient and modern communities is its ability to transform clouds and moisture into usable fresh water independently from the rainy season.

    “Perhaps the most critical function of this environment for ancient and modern communities is its ability to transform clouds and moisture into usable fresh water independently from the rainy season.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The Spanish in the 16th century described large water retention ponds found in Manteño territory as jagüey.

    “The Spanish in the 16th century A.D. described these large water retention ponds found in Manteño territory as jagüey (Zaŕate 2022(Zaŕate [1555]]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Zárate 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Zárate [1555]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The estimated population of the Manteño at contact was around 120,000 people.

    “The estimated population of the Manteño during contact was around 120,000 people (Estrada 1957)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Estrada 1957

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

72 of 72

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Abnormally dry conditions in the region during the Medieval Climate Anomaly motivated the Manteño to intensify their settlements of higher elevations on the Bola de Oro Mountain in search of stable water sources in a more humid environment.

    “We suspect that the abnormally dry conditions in the region during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (Cobb et al. 2003;Nelson and Sachs 2016) would have motivated the Manteño to intensify their settlements of higher elevations on the Bola de Oro Mountain in search of stable water sources in a more humid environment.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cities and towns of Salangome during Manteño rule faced similar consequences of the changing phases of ENSO during their 1000-year history.

    “The cities and towns of Salangome during Manteño rule most likely faced similar consequences of the changing phases of ENSO during their 1000 year history.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    During climate extremes, lower elevations of Manteño territory became distressed while mountainous landscapes were least affected.

    “During climate extremes, lower elevations of the Manteño territory became distressed.At the same time, mountainous landscapes were the least affected, providing stability and perhaps serving as a refuge, motivating the Manteño to transform them into food baskets and water management human landscapes.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The plant coca was first obtained by trade from the Andes and then cultivated in the high elevations of the Chongón-Colonche as it became more popular.

    “Coca tends to grow at elevations between 500 and 1500 masl, so it is assumed that the plant was first obtained by trade from the Andes and then cultivated in the high elevations of the Chongón-Colonche as it became more popular (Marcos 1993; Rogers-Phillips 2021).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The marine layer (garúa) precipitates at the elevations of the Bola de Oro water retention ponds during the dry season.

    “to accumulate and hold water from the rainy seasons and the vital marine layer, or garúa, that precipitates at these elevations during the dry season”
5 of 5

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 55 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 22

  1. Bronk Ramsey C. 2021. OxCal Version 4.4.4. – “Program for the Analysis of Chronological Information.” Research Lab for Archaeology and the History of Art Oxford UK.
  2. Carter B. P. 2008. “Technology Society and Change: Shell Artifact Production Among the Manteño (A.D. 800–1532) of Coastal Ecuador.” Ph.D. dissertation Washington University St. Louis. Ann Arbor: ProQuest/UMI.
  3. ESRI. 2023. ArcGIS Pro: Release 3.1.0. Redlands, CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute.
  4. García, E. L. 2000. El Fenómeno el Niño 1997-1998 Memoria, Retos y Soluciones, Ecuador. 4. Quito, Ecuador: Corporacion Andina de Fomento.
  5. Garzón-Oechsle A. E. 2018. “The Manteño of the Cloud Forest: Settlement Patterns and Spatial Analysis of Manteño Stone Architecture in the Las Tusas River Valley in Manabí Ecuador.” Master thesis Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton Florida.
  6. Harris, M., V. Martínez, W. J. Kennedy, C. Roberts, and J. Gammack-Clark. 2004. “The Complex Interplay of Culture and Nature in Coastal South-Central Ecuador.” Expedition 46 (1): 38–43.
  7. Marcos, J. 1993. Ecuador Antiguo/Ancient Ecuador. Guayaquil, Ecuador: Museo Arqueológico Banco del Pacifico.
  8. Marcos, J., S. G. Alvarez, F. Valverde, B. Ventimilla, and O. Tobar. 2004. Las Albarradas en la Costa del Ecuador: Rescate del Conocimiento Ancestral del Manejo Sostenible de la Biodiversidad. Guayaquil, Ecuador: CEAA-Espol.
  9. Martín A. J. 2001. “The Dynamics of pre-Columbian Spondylus Trade Across the South American Central Pacific Coast.” Master thesis Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton Florida.
  10. Martínez, V. 2019. “El Señorio de Salangome: Intercalando el Registro Arqueológico con el Etnohistórico.” In De Arqueologia Hablamos Las Mujeres. Perspectivas Sobre el Pasado Ecuatoriano, edited by M. Cordero. Manabí, Xipixapa, Ecuador: Publications de la Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí.
  11. MathWorks, I. 1996. MATLAB: The Language of Technical Computing: Computation, Visualization, Programming: Installation Guide for UNIX Version 5. Natwick: Math Works Inc.
  12. Maune, D. F., and A. Nayegandhi. 2018. Digital Elevation Model Technologies and Applications: The Dem Users Manual (3rd ed.). Bethesda, MD: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
  13. Newsome, L. A. 1995. Life and Dead in Early Colonial Ecuador. USA: University of Oklahoma Press.
  14. Paulsen A. 1970. “Chronology of Guangala and Libertad Ceramics at the Rio Chico Site Manabí Ecuador.” Unpublished Dissertation. The University of Michigan. Ann Arbor MI.
  15. Plowman, T. 1984. “The Ethnobotany of Coca (Erythroxylum spp., Erythroxylaceae).” Advances in Economic Botany (1): 62–111.
  16. Prieto, G., J. Verano, and N. Goepfert. 2017. “Lluvias E Inundaciones en el Siglo XV de Nuestra Era: Sacrificios Humanos y de Camélidos Chimu en la Periferia de Chan Chan.” Actas del II Congreso Nacional de Arqueología (1): 55–65. Ministerio de Cultura del Peru, Lima.
  17. Rogers-Phillips V. 2021. “The Genius Loci: People and Nature in The Ecuadorian Cloud Forest.” Master Thesis Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton Florida.
  18. Rowe S. 2005. “Variation and Continuity in Manteño Ceramics: Issues of Social/Ethnic Identity.” Master Thesis University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign.
  19. Sámano-Xerez J. 1527–1528) 1967. La Relación Sámano-Xerez. Las Relaciones Primitivas de la Conquista del Perú edited by R. P. Barrenechea pp. 63–68. Cuadernos de Historía del Perú No. 2.
  20. Scott T. R. 2018. “Investigating Abandonment Processes in the Cloud Forest: An Archaeological and Ethnoarchaeological Study of Manteño Site Abandonment in Manabí Ecuador.” Master Thesis. Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton Florida.
  21. Veintimilla, C. 2013. “El Espacio y la Prospección. Ruinas de una Ciudad Prehispánica de los Antiguos Manteños Establecida en los Cerros Hojas-Jaboncillo, Manabí Central: Análisis Espacial y Jerarquía Social.” La Sociedad Prehispánica Manteña en los Cerros Hojas-Jaboncillo, Boletín Arqueológico (1): 51–157. Centro Cívico Ciudad Alfaro-Proyecto Arqueológico Cerros Hojas-Jaboncillo-Gobierno Nacional de la República del Ecuador. Montecristi, Ecuador.
  22. Vos, R., M. Velasco, and E. Labastida. 1999. Economic and Social Effects of El Niño in Ecuador, 1997-1998. Washington D.C: Inter-American Development Bank.

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Related

Metadata

Authors
Garzón-Oechsle, A., Johanson, E., Nagarajan, S., & Martínez, V.
Affiliations
Florida Atlantic University (US)
Corresponding author
Garzón-Oechsle, Andrés
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Field Archaeology
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2025-01-02
Volume
50
Issue
1
Pages
42-59
ISSN
  • 0093-4690 (ISSN-L)
  • 2042-4582
DOI
10.1080/00934690.2024.2439223
OpenAlex
W4406620573
Cited by
3
References
55
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 2
FWCI
46.38
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
Journal of Field Archaeology (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders
  • Florida Atlantic University
  • Universidad del Atlántico
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Amazonian Archaeology and Ethnohistory
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeological Research and Protection
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
Keywords
Late Holocene, agricultural terraces, water management, drainage channels, cloud forest, UAV LiDAR, digital terrain model, stone architecture, ENSO, Medieval Warm Period, Little Ice Age, climate change adaptation, Ecuadorian coast

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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