Psychological stress in sports coaches: A review of concepts, research, and practice

“Kobasa (1979) characterized the ‘‘hardy personality’’ as one that encompasses high levels of commitment or involvement in day-to-day activities, the perception that one has control over life events, and a tendency to view unexpected change as a challenge rather than a threat to well-being.”

“The transactional conceptualization of stress is less focused on the specific components of an interaction and more concerned with the psychological processes that underpin an encounter (cf. Dewey & Bentley, 1949; Lazarus & Launier, 1978).”

“Dewey & Bentley, 1949 ; Lazarus & Launier, 1978 ).”

“not be used to describe specific components of the transaction between the person and the environment (Lazarus, 1990), but rather to represent the overall process incorporating stressors, strains, appraisals, and coping responses.”

“Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, stressrelated concepts such as anxiety, arousal, and activation featured heavily in researchers’ attempts to better understand and explain how psychological processes influence athletic performance (Hardy et al., 1996; Jones, 1990; Jones & Hardy, 1989, 1990; Woodman & Hardy, 2001).”

“In terms of its origins in the psychological literature, the term ‘‘stress’’ can be traced back to its first appearance in Psychological Abstracts in 1944 (Jones & Bright, 2001; see also Hinkle, 1973; Mason, 1975) and, specifically in the field of sport psychology, to Kroll’s (1979) discussion of ‘‘The stress of high…”

“Initially, the ‘‘duty of care’’ was focused upon physical well-being, but with the increasing recognition that the experience of stress at work can have a negative impact on employees, there has been a shift in the interpretation to include both physical and mental well-being (Cousins et al., 2004).”

“As the number and quality of sports coaches has risen worldwide, coaching has evolved into a recognizable occupation that is fast advancing towards professionalization (Lyle, 2002; Woodman, 1993).”

“In line with this, the HSE has developed the Management Standards programme, which is essentially a three-phase process based on a risk assessment to identify potential stressors in the workplace and associated targeted interventions (see Cousins et al, 2004 ; Mackay, Cousins, Kelly, Lee, & McCaig, 2004 ).”

“While recognizing the advances Frey’s (2007) work has made, Thelwell et al. (2008b) also noted that research with coaches operating at a higher standard of competitive sport is still required.”

“Interestingly, in many respects these stressors parallel those that arise in other demanding professions (see Cooper, Dewe, & O’Driscoll, 2001), including athletes performing in elite sport (Fletcher & Hanton, 2003).”

“Within the coaching stress literature, it is possible to distinguish between four categories of response: cognitive, affective, physiological, and behavioural (Frey, 2007; Taylor, 1992).”

“Coping has been conceived as “the cognitions and behaviors, adopted by the individual following the recognition of a stress encounter, that are in some way designed to deal with that encounter or its consequences” (Dewe, Cox, & Ferguson, 1993 , p.”

“In their evaluation of a coach education programme with New Zealand rugby coaches, Cassidy et al. (2006) found that the participants particularly appreciated the opportunity to share ideas and strategies with each other – a basis from which primary level interventions could be developed.”

“Research suggests that coaches high in hardiness are less susceptible to developing burnout due to more positive appraisals of environmental demands (Hendrix, Acevedo, & Hebert, 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley et al., 1999).”

“Research suggests that coaches high in hardiness are less susceptible to developing burnout due to more positive appraisals of environmental demands (Hendrix, Acevedo, & Hebert, 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley et al., 1999).”

“From a psychological outcome perspective, researchers investigating burnout in coaches have also identified social support as a powerful protective factor (Hendrix et al., 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley & Gill, 1993; Vealey et al., 1992).”

“(p. 49) From a psychological outcome perspective, researchers investigating burnout in coaches have also identified social support as a powerful protective factor (Hendrix et al., 2000; Kelley, 1994; Kelley & Gill, 1993; Vealey et al., 1992).”

“While recognizing the advances Frey’s (2007) work has made, Thelwell et al. (2008b) also noted that research with coaches operating at a higher standard of competitive sport is still required.”

“In their paper about consulting with sports coaches, Giges et al. (2004) describe how sport psychologists can assist coaches in becoming more self-aware of their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.”

“Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, stress-related concepts such as anxiety, arousal, and activation featured heavily in researchers' attempts to better understand and explain how psychological processes influence athletic performance (Hardy et al, 1996 ; Jones, 1990 ; Jones & Hardy, 1989 , 1990 ; Woodman & Hardy, 2001 ).”

“Early research on various stress outcomes within the allied fields of coaching (Dale & Weinberg, 1989), university physical education (Danylchuk, 1993), and sport medicine (Capel, 1986) indicated that coaches, faculty, and trainers exhibit lower levels of burnout than other service professions.”

“Within the coaching stress literature, it is possible to distinguish between four categories of response: cognitive, affective, physiological, and behavioural (Frey, 2007; Taylor, 1992).”

“Furthermore, Kellmann and Kallus (1994) postulated that stress often results in coaches being unable to perform necessary tasks, such as analysing situations and preparing athletes during competitions.”

“This outcome served to highlight the responsibility an employer has to exercise a duty of care to employees and ensure that there is an adequate system in place to assess the risk from work stress (Earnshaw & Morrison, 2001).”

“Early research on various stress outcomes within the allied fields of coaching (Dale & Weinberg, 1989), university physical education (Danylchuk, 1993), and sport medicine (Capel, 1986) indicated that coaches, faculty, and trainers exhibit lower levels of burnout than other service professions.”

“…and athletes’ preferred learning styles), formal and informal group discussions, and active management of the organizational environment (Cassidy, Potrac, & McKenzie, 2006; Demers, Woodburn, & Savard, 2006; Frey, 2007; Giges, Petitpas, & Vernacchia, 2004; Scantling & Lackey, 2005; Taylor, 1992).”

“…may initially appraise a stressor in a negative manner, but further evaluates the resultant emotion as having thepotential to facilitate performance (cf. Fletcher& Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010), and thereby maintain resilience in stressful situations.”

“Furthermore, coaches also experience specific stressors and in some cases, may require better emotional support [19, 20] within a culture of performance and competition.”

“…e.g., Anshel, Kim, Kim, Chang, & Eom, 2001; Burton, 1998; Burton & Naylor, 1997; Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Gill, 1994; Rotella & Lerner, 1993; Tenenbaum, Jones, Kitsantas, Sacks, & Berwick, 2003a; see also Anderson & Williams, 1988;…”

“Based on this thesis of the CMR theory, Fletcher and Scott (2010) developed a model to explain how individuals respond in pressured situations and how the process affects their performance (cf. Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006).”

“The folds of research are gathering on emotional experience among athletes but also among coaches (Fletcher & Scott, 2010 ), parents (Harwood & Knight, 2009 ), referees (Bortoli & Robazza, 2002 ) and sport fans (Jones & Sheffield, 2007 ).”

“…on stress management in competitive athletes, but researchers have also shown that coaches, parents, and sport psychology practitioners are prone to a wide range of competitive and organizational stress (Fletcher, Rumbold, Tester, & Coombes, 2011; Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Harwood & Knight, 2009).”

“Organisational stressors can be situated in the first stage of Fletcher and colleagues’ (Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher et al., 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010) meta-model of stress, emotions, and performance.”

“However, following their review, research seemed to focus more on the stress experiences of coaches than on burnout (e.g., Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Olusoga et al., 2009, 2010, Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008).”

“…appears to be no published research that attempts to understand why different coaches respond to similar stressors in different ways or why the same coach may appraise a stressor as stressful on one occasion yet appraise the same stressor as benign on another occasion (Fletcher and Scott 2010).”

“Previous research on high-performance coaches in a stress perspective shows the importance of a focus on coaches' needs and ability to recovery, as this should not be a topic exclusively concerning athletes in sport (Fletcher & Scott, 2010).”

“Fletcher and colleagues (Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher et al., 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010) developed a metamodel that, in line with the transactional conceptualization of stress (cf. Cox, 1978; Lazarus & Launier, 1978), offers a theoretical explanation of the relationships among stress,…”

“However, by adopting a psychological approach to the area may mean that well-being and any sub-optimal mental states are viewed as an individual issue, for example as a coach’s inability to cope (Fletcher and Scott, 2010).”

“Fletcher and Fletcher ( 2005 ) proposed a meta-model of stress, emotion, and performance, which outlines the relationship between the processes, moderators, and consequences of the stress process and provides a solid theoretical and conceptual grounding for the study of coaches' stress experiences (Fletcher & Scott, 2…”

“It is also reasonable to argue that their continued employment is likely to be influenced by the immediate desire for successful performance outcomes (Fletcher & Scott, 2010).”

“, missing children’s education, long periods away from home) [13, 14, 17].”

“There are many research 21 articles that profess to the stress coaches are undr (see Fletcher & Scott, 2010).”

“…coaches’ psychological, physical, and behavioural responses to stress experiences are likely to be detrimental to the effectiveness and general performance of coaches (Fletcher & Scott, 2010); a final aim of the study was to explore how effective coaches perceive themselves to be when stressed.”

“…and anxiety literature (see Hanton, Neil, & Mellalieu, 2008), is not consistent with contemporary stress research (Fletcher et al., 2006, see also Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Mellalieu, Neil, Hanton, & Fletcher, 2009), which distinguishes conceptually between the events or properties of events…”

“…instructive here including the circumplex model (Wright & Bonett, 1997; Wright & Doherty, 1998), the affective events theory (Fisher, 2002; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), and the meta-model of stress, emotions and performance (Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher et al., 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010).”

“This is a signi fi cant shortcoming of both reviews (Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Norris et al., 2017) because in fl uential theoretical perspectives (e.g. the cognitive-motivational-relational theory; Lazarus, 1999) clearly signify stress as a transactional process that includes appraising and emotions…”

“In 19 particular, coaches' experiences of stress and burnout have been popular topics for 20 investigation (cf., Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Goodger, Gorely, Lavallee, & Harwood, 2007).”

“…in the present study illustrates that relational stressors extend beyond existence in athletic, coaching, and psychological domains (cf. Arnold & Fletcher, 2012; Fletcher et al., 2011; Fletcher & Scott, 2010); hence, they also need to be optimally managed by those operating in supporting roles.”

“Fletcher et al. (e.g. Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher et al., 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010) extended this work and proposed that an athlete (or a professional soccer referee) may interpret any emotion as either facilitative or debilitative of performance.”

“This profession deals with a high degree of performance-related stressors (Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005) regarding their own performance (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008) and regarding less controllable stressors such as the performance of their athletes…”

“Sociological literature has long shown not only the multiplicity of roles and responsibilities expected of coaches, including protecting youth athlete welfare (Coakley, 1994), but also that coaches face many and varied stressors by virtue of their roles (Fletcher and Scott, 2010; Norris et al., 2017).”

“Sport coaches and practitioners operate within a complex, ever-changing environment that imposes many pressures on them.(14) Pressure and stress are known to heighten menstrual cycle symptoms,(15,16) which may affect coaches and practitioners, their relationships, and support provision.”

“In contrast, if the coach becomes more focused on the outcomes of the competitive process, this in turn is likely to increase the pressure on the players to deliver the performances that satisfy the coaches and management (Fletcher & Scott, 2010 ).”

“These studies have summarised key concepts around stressors [21, 22, 35, 36], wellbeing [21, 35, 36], coping strategies [3, 21, 36] and burnout [37].”

“To elaborate, the meta-model of stress, emotions, and performance (Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher et al., 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010) stipulates that in addition to the processes of perception, appraisal, and coping mediating the relationships between stressors and responses, feeling states,…”

“Encountering organisational stressors is not just limited to athletes, with researchers highlighting such demands in coaches (see, for a review, Fletcher & Scott, 2010), parents (see, e.g., Harwood & Knight, 2009), sports officials (see, e.g., Voight, 2009) and sport psychologists (see, e.g.,…”

“Nevertheless, the high performance (HP) sport work environment is considered to be highly demanding, unpredictable, and insecure [2].”

“As previously identified, existing research has largely focused on the stress and coping experiences of full-time paid coaches (e.g., see Fletcher and Scott 2010, Knights and Ruddock-Hudson 2016, Didymus 2017) and has most often sampled male coaches.”

“According to the meta-model for stress, emotions and performance (Fletcher and Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher and Scott, 2010), stressors originate in an individual’s environment and its effects are mediated by the processes of perception, appraisal and coping, and then consequently manifest in positive…”

“Due to the complex and ever-changing environment in which a sport coach works, and the multiple roles and responsibilities, including that of an instructor,(9) friend,(9) mentor,(10) organizer,(10) counselor(11) and educator,(9) the examination of stress and social support in sports coaching has attracted interest.(4,…”

“This contradicts Fletcher and Scott’s [42] proposition that coaches at higher levels are more susceptible to lower levels of mental well-being due to the increased number of stressors they experience.”

“…from the first author who had recent experience of researching organizational stress (e.g., Fletcher & Hanton, 2003; Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005), and working as a BASES accredited psychologist in both academic and practical roles.”

“…when discussing implications for future research, Sarkar and Fletcher (2016) noted: Since elite sport coaches operate within complex, everchanging environments that impose many pressures on them (see, for a review, Fletcher & Scott, 2010), future research should examine resilience in elite coaches.”

“These findings provide support for Fletcher and colleagues’ (Fletcher et al., 2006; Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher & Scott, 2010) meta-model of stress, emotion, and performance and point to the importance of multifaceted approaches to addressing coaching stress.”

“More recently, Fletcher and Scott [30] postulated that environmental (e.”

“…or family; Frey, 2007; Gencay &Gencay, 2011; Olusoga, Butt, Hays, &Maynard, 2009), and personal characteristics (e.g. individual perception; Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Raedeke, 2004; Raedeke, Granzyk, & Warren, 2000) might lead to high stress levels and critical health situations which may…”

“The coach may become more focused on the outcomes of the competitive process as this is an objective indicator of success (Fletcher & Scott, 2010).”

“The high-performance environment can be very demanding, and the culmination of stressors, internal and external pressure can create an environment that is physically and psychologically draining (Fletcher and Scott, 2010; LaraBercial and Mallett, 2016).”

“However, while research findings have identified the causal components of coach stress, there is a dearth of research examining the multidimensional nature of stress, and the notion that stress can be both adaptive and maladaptive (Fletcher & Scott, 2010).”

“…being considered as performers in their own right, and several studies that 123 attest to the array of stressors that coaches experience (e.g., Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Olusoga 124 et al., 2010; Thelwell et al., 2008b), there is a paucity of research detailing the development 125 or evaluating…”

“This in turn can lead to positive or negative responses, feeling states, and outcomes (Fletcher and Scott 2010).”

“For example, coaches who are unable to effectively manage stress in high pressure situations may increase the stress levels of their athletes, resulting in possible detriments to prosocial behaviors toward opponents and performance (Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Gould et al., 2002).”

“Anecdotally, it was thought that staff might display compromised sleep behaviour due to a pressurised environment and long working hours often associated with elite sport (Fletcher & Scott, 2010; RuddockHudson & Knights, 2014).”

“Coaching is undoubtedly a practical process, but it is also an inescapably cognitive and emotional practice (Fletcher and Scott 2009, Chan and Mallett 2011, Potrac and Marshall 2011).”

“Indeed, in their review of psychological stress in sport coaches, Fletcher and Scott (2010) outlined the increasing demands of involvement in competitive sport, such as continued selection and employment being influenced by the need for ongoing successful performance outcomes.”

“In the literature, it is acknowledged that being part of a sport management team at an elite level is characterized by a high level of exposure to a number of unpredictable stressors, often in combination with a low level of control over the situation and high demands [4, 5, 6].”

“Regardless of the effect on the athlete, Thelwell et al. (2008a; p. 918) recently commented that, “coaches should be classified as performers in their own right” and, there are significant potential health costs of the psychological stress experienced by coaches (Fletcher & Scott, 2010).”

“The role of a sports coach is pivotal in enhancing various facets of the athletes, including physical, technical, mental, and tactical aspects, while concurrently playing a crucial role in their personal and social development (Fletcher and Scott, 2010).”

“Especially the working environment of high-performance coaches can be characterized as complex, dynamic, and turbulent due to its unpredictability, variability, and competitiveness (Rynne et al., 2006; Fletcher and Scott, 2010).”

“…made considerable progress investigating organizational stress within the sports environment by examining the stress experienced by coaches (Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Olusoga, Butt, Hays, & Maynard, 2009), athletes (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008), parents (Harwood & Knight,…”

“In response, Fletcher and colleagues (Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher et al., 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010) developed a meta-model of stress that can be used to inform the measurement of stressors in sport psychology, since it outlines and explains the relationships among stress, emotions, and…”

“Thus, the letter has the potential to help reduce the risk of coach burnout and enhance the development of psychosocial coaching skills (Fletcher and Scott 2010; Goodger et al. 2007).”

“, emotional dissonance and a feeling of inauthenticity) for coaches [55].”

“…protective structure, can adjust the process by which individuals actively adapt to adversity or trauma in a timely manner (Luthar et al., 2000b) and protect adolescents from negative psychological effects (Anyan & Hjemdal, 2016; Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Xiong, et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2019).”

“Sports coaching is stressful, in part because coaches are subject to a vast array of stressors that can harm performance and psychological wellbeing (Fletcher and Scott 2010).”

“Coaching is a demanding profession that can cause signi fi cant mental and emotional exhaustion (Fletcher & Scott, 2010; Olusoga et al., 2019).”

“Scholars have explored emotions from various angles over the past few decades and have studied emotional triggers [5], types of emotions [4], regulation of emotions [6], the effects of emotions [7], and emotional processes [8].”

“4 Discussion By expressing one’s thoughts and sharing them with family members and friends, one can better understand one’s feelings (Fletcher and Scott, 2010).”

“After reviewing existing literature, Fletcher and Scott (2010) speculated that coaches of higher levels would experience more stressors than those at lower levels; however, the current study revealed a vast number of stressors experienced by DII coaches, and results mirrored those found among…”