Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive outcomes and academic performance in adolescents and young adults: A meta-analysis

“If a study reported the outcome of interest in multiple subgroups (e.g., fit vs. unfit or high vs. low social economic status), the mean of the subgroups weighted by their sample sizes was used in the analyses (Moher et al., 2009).”

“Furthermore, neurocognitive functions are an important prerequisite for successful learning (Brown & Blanton, 2002; Diamond, 2013), and executive functions are indispensable for success throughout life (Diamond & Lee, 2011).”

“Despite the benefits of physical activity, nowadays more than 80% of adolescents do not adhere to the recommended physical activity guidelines (Piercy et al., 2018).”

“Underlying processes that could increase this efficiency are neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, which are related to chronic interventions (Hillman et al., 2015). In the review of Gomez-Pinilla & Hillman (2013) brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is suggested to be an important initiator of synaptic plasticity.”

“Furthermore, neurocognitive functions are an important prerequisite for successful learning (Brown & Blanton, 2002; Diamond, 2013), and executive functions are indispensable for success throughout life (Diamond & Lee, 2011).”

“During this stage of development, higher cortical functions, the so-called executive functions, which are located in the prefrontal cortex show rapid development (Lebel et al., 2008; Lenroot & Giedd, 2006).”

“In the later-puberty, rapid development of the prefrontal cortex takes place which may make this structure especially sensitive to the effects of interventions, like physical activity interventions, compared to other developmental stages (Lebel et al., 2008).”

“Repeated bouts of physical activity (also referred to as chronic physical activity or chronic exercise) has been shown to lead to angiogenesis (Best, 2010), synaptogenesis and neurogenesis (Hillman et al., 2015; Ross et al., 2015).”

“…is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. levels, resulting in increased levels of arousal, attention and effort, which in turn positively influence the performance on cognitive tasks shortly after performing physical activity (Best, 2010; Kashihara et al., 2009; Tomporowski, 2003).”

“…studies to examine whether cognitively challenging interventions have a different effect on executive functions compared to other types of physical activity interventions, but results of meta-analyses in preadolescent children support this hypothesis (De Greeff et al., 2018; Vazou et al., 2019).”

“In terms of brain development, grey and white matter have been found to continue developing up to 30 years of age, with the most prominent changes taking place in the prefrontal cortex (Lebel et al., 2008; Lenroot & Giedd, 2006; Tamnes et al., 2017; Whitford et al., 2007).”

“Physical activity confers strong positive health benefits, including lower risks of cardiovascular diseases (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010; Li & Siegrist, 2012), adiposity (Haynos & O’Donohue, 2012) and type 2 diabetes (Stanford & Goodyear, 2014).”

“Overall, 44 studies (Aguirre-Loaiza et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García,…”

“Second, the mean age of the participants in the sample had to be between 12 and 30 years (Rindfuss, 1991).”

“The existing literature mostly focuses on acute physical activity interventions in preadolescent children (Fedewa & Ahn, 2011; De Greeff et al., 2018; Lees & Hopkins, 2013) or elderly populations (Angevaren et al., 2007; Northey et al., 2017).”

“In the meta-analysis of Ludyga et al. (2016) it was suggested that short aerobic exercise bouts of moderate intensity restore cognitive resources, a finding that is in line with our results.”

“…our findings differ from the meta-analytic results of Xue et al. (2019), who showed positive effects on inhibition, but not on working memory or cognitive flexibility and of Alvarez-Bueno et al. (2017), who showed positive effects on inhibition, but not on working memory or cognitive flexibility.”

“…Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012; Palmiere et al., 2018; Peruyero et al., 2017; Pontifex et al., 2009; Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et…”

“…our findings differ from the meta-analytic results of Xue et al. (2019), who showed positive effects on inhibition, but not on working memory or cognitive flexibility and of Alvarez-Bueno et al. (2017), who showed positive effects on inhibition, but not on working memory or cognitive flexibility.”

“During physical activity, cognition may or may not be challenged by performing (increasingly) difficult movements or by increasing rules or the number of objects to be handled in an exercise (Tomporowski et al., 2015).”

“Physical activity confers strong positive health benefits, including lower risks of cardiovascular diseases (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010; Li & Siegrist, 2012), adiposity (Haynos & O’Donohue, 2012) and type 2 diabetes (Stanford & Goodyear, 2014).”

“Moreover, the transition from childhood into adulthood is characterised by a marked decrease in physical activity and an increase in sedentary behaviour (Corder et al., 2017; Hardy et al., 2007; Kimm et al., 2000).”

“…et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et…”

“A growing number of studies have supported the idea that physical activity boosts these executive functions (Li et al., 2017; Verburgh et al., 2013; Xue et al., 2019).”

“This is slightly different from a previous meta-analysis, which showed positive effects on science, including mathematics, but not on language or grade point average (Spruit et al., 2016).”

“While in the age range of 12–18 years a lot of behavioural changes take place that stay present in adults (Cluskey & Grobe, 2009).”

“After acute interventions, BDNF levels are increased for a short time period and could explain increased levels of arousal, attention and effort, which positively influences the performance on cognitive tasks (Kashihara et al., 2009; Tomporowski, 2003).”

“…Zimmer et al., 2016) investigated the effects of acute physical activity interventions, and 27 studies (Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer et al., 2015; Costigan et al., 2016; Duarte et al., 2020; Hagins & Rundle, 2016; Heisz et al., 2017; Jeon & Ha, 2017; Johann et al., 2016; Kauts & Sharma, 2009;…”

“…et al., 2016; PintoEscalona & Martínez-de-Quel, 2019; Purohit & Pradhan, 2017; Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015; Tarp et al., 2016; Torbeyns et al., 2017; Venckunas et al., 2016; Woost et al., 2018; Zheng et…”

“, 2016) investigated the effects of acute physical activity interventions, and 27 studies (Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer et al., 2015; Costigan et al., 2016; Duarte et al., 2020; Hagins & Rundle, 2016; Heisz et al., 2017; Jeon & Ha, 2017; Johann et al., 2016; Kauts & Sharma, 2009; Lennemann et al., 2013; Ludyga, Gerber,…”

“…(Aguirre-Loaiza et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang…”

“…and 27 studies (Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer et al., 2015; Costigan et al., 2016; Duarte et al., 2020; Hagins & Rundle, 2016; Heisz et al., 2017; Jeon & Ha, 2017; Johann et al., 2016; Kauts & Sharma, 2009; Lennemann et al., 2013; Ludyga, Gerber, Herrmann, et al., 2018; Ludyga, Gerber, Kamijo,…”

“…Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Whyte…”

“Overall, 44 studies (Aguirre-Loaiza et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2…”

“…2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012; Palmiere et al., 2018; Peruyero et al., 2017; Pontifex et al., 2009; Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et…”

“Overall, 44 studies (Aguirre-Loaiza et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2…”

“, 2016) investigated the effects of acute physical activity interventions, and 27 studies (Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer et al., 2015; Costigan et al., 2016; Duarte et al., 2020; Hagins & Rundle, 2016; Heisz et al., 2017; Jeon & Ha, 2017; Johann et al., 2016; Kauts & Sharma, 2009; Lennemann et al., 2013; Ludyga, Gerber,…”

“Moreover, the transition from childhood into adulthood is characterised by a marked decrease in physical activity and an increase in sedentary behaviour (Corder et al., 2017; Hardy et al., 2007; Kimm et al., 2000).”

“…et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang &…”

“The existing literature mostly focuses on acute physical activity interventions in preadolescent children (Fedewa & Ahn, 2011; De Greeff et al., 2018; Lees & Hopkins, 2013) or elderly populations (Angevaren et al., 2007; Northey et al., 2017).”

“Furthermore, neurocognitive functions are an important prerequisite for successful learning (Brown & Blanton, 2002; Diamond, 2013), and executive functions are indispensable for success throughout life (Diamond & Lee, 2011).”

“…2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et…”

“Overall, 44 studies (Aguirre-Loaiza et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García,…”

“A growing number of studies have supported the idea that physical activity boosts these executive functions (Li et al., 2017; Verburgh et al., 2013; Xue et al., 2019).”

“…et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012; Palmiere et al.,…”

“Our findings confirm the results of Rathore & Lom (2017) who also found positive significant effect sizes for working memory and those of De Greeff et al. (2018) who found positive results for working memory and cognitive flexibility, but not in inhibition.”

“…et al., 2016; PintoEscalona & Martínez-de-Quel, 2019; Purohit & Pradhan, 2017; Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015; Tarp et al., 2016; Torbeyns et al., 2017; Venckunas et al., 2016; Woost et al., 2018; Zheng et…”

“…et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Whyte et al., 2014; Zhou & Qin, 2019; Zimmer et al., 2016) investigated the effects of acute physical activity interventions, and 27 studies (Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer et al., 2015;…”

“It is suggested that physical activity, for example, facilitates working memory by increasing the efficiency of evaluating the stimulus (Chang et al., 2013).”

“…Purohit & Pradhan, 2017; Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015; Tarp et al., 2016; Torbeyns et al., 2017; Venckunas et al., 2016; Woost et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2015) investigated the effects of chronic…”

“…al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012;…”

“…Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015; Tarp et al., 2016; Torbeyns et al., 2017; Venckunas et al., 2016; Woost et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2015) investigated the effects of chronic physical activity interventions.”

“…Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Whyte…”

“Moreover, during puberty physical activity patterns change, earlier in girls than in boys (Bacil et al., 2015).”

“…et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012; Palmiere et al., 2018; Peruyero et al., 2017; Pontifex et al., 2009; Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et…”

“…et al., 2019; Matthews et al., 2016; PintoEscalona & Martínez-de-Quel, 2019; Purohit & Pradhan, 2017; Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015; Tarp et al., 2016; Torbeyns et al., 2017; Venckunas et al., 2016;…”

“…Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang…”

“Furthermore, most studies focus on cognitive outcomes, while few studies describe effects of physical activity interventions on academic performance (Haapala, 2012).”

“…2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012; Palmiere et al., 2018; Peruyero et al., 2017; Pontifex et al., 2009; Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et…”

“…Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015; Tarp et al., 2016; Torbeyns et al., 2017; Venckunas et al., 2016; Woost et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2015) investigated the effects of chronic physical activity interventions.”

“Repeated bouts of physical activity (also referred to as chronic physical activity or chronic exercise) has been shown to lead to angiogenesis (Best, 2010), synaptogenesis and neurogenesis (Hillman et al., 2015; Ross et al., 2015).”

“…et al., 2018; Ludyga, Gerber, Kamijo, et al., 2018; Ludyga, Köchli, et al., 2019; Matthews et al., 2016; PintoEscalona & Martínez-de-Quel, 2019; Purohit & Pradhan, 2017; Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015;…”

“If p values were reported as p > 0.05, we assumed a p-value of 0.53 (i.e. the average of 0.05 and 1.00) in order to calculate the standard error and 95% CI (Bland, 2013).”

“…et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Whyte et al., 2014; Zhou & Qin, 2019; Zimmer et al., 2016)…”

“Repeated bouts of physical activity (also referred to as chronic physical activity or chronic exercise) has been shown to lead to angiogenesis (Best, 2010), synaptogenesis and neurogenesis (Hillman et al., 2015; Ross et al., 2015).”

“…2017; Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015; Tarp et al., 2016; Torbeyns et al., 2017; Venckunas et al., 2016; Woost et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2015) investigated the effects of chronic physical activity…”

“…2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012; Palmiere et al., 2018; Peruyero et al., 2017; Pontifex et al., 2009;…”

“Overall, 44 studies (Aguirre-Loaiza et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García,…”

“…al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012;…”

“…of acute physical activity interventions, and 27 studies (Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer et al., 2015; Costigan et al., 2016; Duarte et al., 2020; Hagins & Rundle, 2016; Heisz et al., 2017; Jeon & Ha, 2017; Johann et al., 2016; Kauts & Sharma, 2009; Lennemann et al., 2013; Ludyga, Gerber,…”

“…Costigan et al., 2016; Duarte et al., 2020; Hagins & Rundle, 2016; Heisz et al., 2017; Jeon & Ha, 2017; Johann et al., 2016; Kauts & Sharma, 2009; Lennemann et al., 2013; Ludyga, Gerber, Herrmann, et al., 2018; Ludyga, Gerber, Kamijo, et al., 2018; Ludyga, Köchli, et al., 2019; Matthews et al.,…”

“…et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012; Palmiere et al., 2018; Peruyero et al., 2017; Pontifex et al., 2009; Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler,…”

“…2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012;…”

“…et al., 2018; Peruyero et al., 2017; Pontifex et al., 2009; Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et…”

“…& Martínez-de-Quel, 2019; Purohit & Pradhan, 2017; Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015; Tarp et al., 2016; Torbeyns et al., 2017; Venckunas et al., 2016; Woost et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2015) investigated the…”

“…2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Whyte et al., 2014; Zhou & Qin, 2019; Zimmer et al., 2016) investigated the effects of acute physical activity interventions, and 27 studies (Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer…”

“…al., 2009; Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al.,…”

“…2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et…”

“…al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012; Palmiere et al., 2018; Peruyero et al., 2017; Pontifex et al., 2009; Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014,…”

“…Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer & Hollmann, 2013; Stroth et al., 2009, 2010; Subramanian et al., 2015; Tarp et al., 2016; Torbeyns et al., 2017; Venckunas et al., 2016; Woost et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2015) investigated the effects of chronic physical activity interventions.”

“…(Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer et al., 2015; Costigan et al., 2016; Duarte et al., 2020; Hagins & Rundle, 2016; Heisz et al., 2017; Jeon & Ha, 2017; Johann et al., 2016; Kauts & Sharma, 2009; Lennemann et al., 2013; Ludyga, Gerber, Herrmann, et al., 2018; Ludyga, Gerber, Kamijo, et al., 2018;…”

“Overall, 44 studies (Aguirre-Loaiza et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García,…”

“…2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Whyte et al., 2014; Zhou & Qin, 2019; Zimmer et al., 2016) investigated the effects of acute physical activity interventions, and 27 studies (Ardoy…”

“Overall, 44 studies (Aguirre-Loaiza et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2…”

“…al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Whyte et al., 2014; Zhou & Qin, 2019; Zimmer et al., 2016) investigated the effects of acute physical activity…”

“…et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et al., 2012; Sperlich et al., 2018; Takahashi et al., 2019; Tine, 2014; Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Whyte et al., 2014; Zhou & Qin,…”

“…Tine & Butler, 2012; Tsai et al., 2014, 2016; Tsorbatzoudis et al., 1998; Tsukamoto et al., 2017; Van den Berg et al., 2018; Vonk et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Whyte et al., 2014; Zhou & Qin, 2019; Zimmer et al., 2016) investigated the effects of acute physical activity interventions, and…”

“…al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray &…”

“, 2016) investigated the effects of acute physical activity interventions, and 27 studies (Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer et al., 2015; Costigan et al., 2016; Duarte et al., 2020; Hagins & Rundle, 2016; Heisz et al., 2017; Jeon & Ha, 2017; Johann et al., 2016; Kauts & Sharma, 2009; Lennemann et al., 2013; Ludyga, Gerber,…”

“Moreover, the transition to adulthood often concurs with life changes, that influence health related behaviours, like behaviour changes in a new environment, with changing social contacts and support (Cluskey & Grobe, 2009; Horn et al., 2008).”

“…investigated the effects of acute physical activity interventions, and 27 studies (Ardoy et al., 2014; Butzer et al., 2015; Costigan et al., 2016; Duarte et al., 2020; Hagins & Rundle, 2016; Heisz et al., 2017; Jeon & Ha, 2017; Johann et al., 2016; Kauts & Sharma, 2009; Lennemann et al., 2013;…”

“…& Sharma, 2009; Lennemann et al., 2013; Ludyga, Gerber, Herrmann, et al., 2018; Ludyga, Gerber, Kamijo, et al., 2018; Ludyga, Köchli, et al., 2019; Matthews et al., 2016; PintoEscalona & Martínez-de-Quel, 2019; Purohit & Pradhan, 2017; Sharma et al., 2015; Sjöwall et al., 2019; Spitzer &…”

“…2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2016; Hwang & Lu, 2018; Jaffery et al., 2018; Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et…”

“…Lambourne, 2012; Lambourne et al., 2010; Ludyga, Pühse, et al., 2019; Mezcua-Hidalgo et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2012; Murray & Russoniello, 2012; Palmiere et al., 2018; Peruyero et al., 2017; Pontifex et al., 2009; Prashanth, 2020; Du Rietz et al., 2019; Schwarck et al., 2019; Sipavičienė et…”

“Overall, 44 studies (Aguirre-Loaiza et al., 2019; Akatsuka et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2015; Benzing et al., 2016; Browne et al., 2016; Budde et al., 2010, 2008; Chang & Etnier, 2009; Chang et al., 2011; Coles & Tomporowski, 2008; Cooper et al., 2016, 2012; ÉW et al., 2011; Guzmán & López-García, 2016; Hwang et al., 2…”

“The inconsistent results presented in the literature could perhaps be explained by differences in the factors considered from a study design, how attention is measured, or the inclusion of samples representing different age groups [6] or cardiovascular fitness levels [6], just as happens in research on overall cogniti…”

“Specifically, meta-analytic research suggests that chronic endurance or HIIT exercise protocols improve cognitive functions in young adult populations, in tasks of processing speed, attentional allocation, working memory, language skills and cognitive flexibility and (Haverkamp et al., 2020).”

“Further research [22] saw deviations from this as they reported acute PA interventions significantly improved processing speed, inhibition and attention, whereas chronic PA interventions significantly improved processing speed, attention, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and language skills.”

“In addition, more recent meta-analyses have primarily focused on executive processes 19,22,26,27 .”

“15 Specifically, in the review of Haverkamp et al. 15 only one study (assessing academic performance) was included and the authors did not conduct a meta-analysis.”

“This is in line with previous meta-analyses reporting effect sizes ranging from 0.18 to 0.50 for cognitive outcomes such as executive functions, inhibition, processing speed, cognitive flexibility, working memory or academic performance in children and adolescents [9–11, 21, 51–53].”

“However, there are discrepancies with other works that only found associations between PA and some of the academic areas or, either language or math, but not both [35,39,80].”

“…for modeling regression or classification of variables by interactions such as the path analysis model, but at the same time, it helps us to be cautious in pointing to unique and multiple factor cognitive strategies as the general models of the intelligence-achievement relationship [41-45].”

“PE promotes physical activity which are linked to physical (Griffo et al., 2020) and mental benefits (Haverkamp et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2019).”

“(2020), chronic interventions were shown to improve cognitive flexibility (ES = 0.19) and attention (ES = 0.50), with improvements to working memory also evident (Haverkamp et al., 2020).”

“Only a few studies had examined the age effects in the association between PA and AA, and the findings were inconsistent in older adolescents [41, 46].”

“Researchers pay special attention to: • substantiating the amount of motor activity (Kondakov, Voloshina, Kopeikina, & Kadutskaya, 2020; Bueichekú, Ávila, Miró-Padilla, & Sepulcre, 2019; Lothmann, Holmes, Chan, & Lau, 2011); • studying the influence of motor activity on cognitive functions (De Bruijn, Kostons, Van Der…”

“, [69, 70] but see [71] for a review), while others found a benefit only in older adults (e.”

“Additionally, recent research has suggested that physical exercise benefits the development of different areas of the neurological and psychological function of children [13 – 15] and improves CF and EF, such as attention, memory, learning, and problem-solving [16].”

“Consequently, increased angiogenesis and BDNF have been suggested as an explanation for the beneficial effect of fitness on cognitive function (Haverkamp et al., 2020).”

“Most large-scale meta-analyses examining the relationship be-tween exercise training and cognitive function (Chen et al., 2020; Haverkamp et al., 2020; Northey et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2023) have included more studies on AET than on SRT. Specifically, both AET and SRT improve global cognition…”

“Concerning the length of physical activity bouts, some evidence suggests that shorter bouts of physical activity yield greater improvements on cognitive outcomes, compared to longer bouts [11, 12].”

“Bridging PA and learning together can both increase students’ time for physical movements and provide a more active, interactive, and social learning experience (Haverkamp et al., 2020).”

“Xue et al. (2019) also found that chronic PA interventions produced small but positive effects on executive function (EF), but the magnitude of these effects did not significantly surpass those of regular PA. Similarly, de Greeff et al. (2016) suggested that while certain types of PA (such as cognitively enriched PA)…”

“Adolescent sports participation [30] and, more broadly, physical activity are linked to academic achievement [31,32].”

“Adolescents’ physical and mental health can in turn benefit cognitive performance and brain development, laying the physiological foundations for CF (Haverkamp et al., 2020).”

“Recent meta-analyses results indicate that PA intervention may be an effective approach for enhancing attention [9,10].”

“Our findings are consistent with intervention studies showing the benefits of physical activity on cognitive outcomes (Haverkamp et al., 2020) and highlight the importance of physical activity, particularly among children from low ‐ income backgrounds (Foster & Marcus Jenkins, 2017).”

“According to a meta-analysis [37], both acute and chronic physical activity (PA) interventions might be a promising way to improve several cognitive outcomes and language skills in adolescents and young adults.”

“Physical exercise therapies offer tailored solutions that address the interconnected aspects of activity, recovery, and well-being, enhancing athletes ’ fitness, skills, and strategic capabilities [2].”

“Considering that brief periods of PA during school also promote academic achievement (Haverkamp et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2019), future studies should implement energizer activities throughout the school day, testing the feasibility of these strategies to improve off-training behaviours and…”

“As a comprehensive example, a meta-analytic review of causal research by Haverkamp et al. (8) found positive effects of short-and long-term physical activity interventions on executive functions from ages 12 to 30 yr.”

“Nguyen & Walters [46] reported significant positive effects of various nature interventions on attention and executive function in children and adolescents while Haverkamp et al. [22] highlighted the favourable impacts of physical activity on various cognitive function domains.”

“Numerous RCTs have consistently demonstrated improvements in cognitive function [51], academic performance [52], and mental health [53] in adolescents following physical exercise interventions.”

“The distinction among the EFs has shown a small impact of chronic PA on CF and a significant effect on WM [135].”

“Acute bouts of physical activity have also been shown to result in facilitating effects on executive function (Ludyga et al., 2016; Moreau and Chou, 2019; Haverkamp et al., 2020; Chueh et al., 2022).”

“In the literature, there have been many interventions that have successfully improved academic performance through targeting lifestyle behaviors such as physical activity, 40 procrastination, 41 and smartphone addiction.”

“In this context, a systematic review reported that PA can be a way to improve cognitive outcomes and language skills in adolescents and young adults [69].”

“…affects their mental and emotional states, including cognitive function, academic performance, quality of life, and depression, as well as their physical health, including the occurrence of conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, hypertension, obesity, and osteoporosis [4–7].”

“Physical activity interventions in typically developing youngsters positively affect cognition, namely executive functions and, more specifically, attention, knowing that a single bout of physical activity increases cerebral blood flow and the secretion of neurotransmitters, leading to increased levels of arousal and…”

“Previous meta-analyses found small- to-moderate benefits of a single exercise session on cold executive function across age (Haverkamp et al. 2020; Ludyga et al. 2016).”

“A higher level of PA was positively associated with better information processing and executive functions [38], which are rapidly developed in adolescence.”

“…children (Álvarez-Bueno et al., 2017; Bidzan-Bluma & lipowska, 2018; Hillman et al., 2019) and solely in adolescents (esteban-cornejo et al., 2015; Haverkamp et al., 2020), have also indicated pA benefits for cognition with the potential mediating role of type of activity and some psychological…”

“A lack of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is linked to a higher risk of excessive calorie intake, obesity [4,5], and cardiometabolic diseases [6-8]; higher risk of depression and anxiety [9-11]; and lower cognitive and school performance [12,13].”

“Growing research suggests that regular PA may also help support academic performance and cognitive function in young people [2, 3].”

“…benefits, affirmed by multiple studies, are attributed to the increase in aerobic capacity induced by exercise, which favors cognitive improvement through enhanced synaptic plasticity, highlighting the essential role of EXR in supporting mental health and preventing cognitive decline [18,19].”

“Conversely, acute physical activity interventions, such as training sessions lasting less than 60 min, have been found to positively influence attention and cognitive flexibility, but not working memory (Haverkamp et al. 2020).”

“exercise on cognitive functioning in adolescents [30].”

“However, the relationship between age and asymmetry index was not found to be significant (Haverkamp et al., 2020).”

“…2020), as well as incorporating theoretical and practical experiences regarding aerobic exercise interventions and academic engagement behaviours among middle school students (Álvarez-Bueno et al., 2020; Haverkamp et al., 2020), a simple and feasible exercise intervention programme was designed.”

“A recent meta-analysis confirmed that physical exercise intervention improved cognitive function in subjects (Hedges’ g = 0.31), as evidenced by improvements in reaction speed (g = 0.39), attention (g = 0.34), and inhibition (g = 0.32), thus promoting enhanced executive function [6].”

“It would promote PA and improve academic results, since there is evidence showing that concentration, attention, processing speed and performance in the classroom are improved significantly with AB (Álvarez-Bueno et al., 2017; Haverkamp et al., 2020, Ruiz-Ariza et al., 2021).”

“Although young adults and adolescents have been relatively ignored in the past, studies targeting this age group have accelerated in recent years, yet they are still insu ffi cient (Haverkamp et al., 2020).”

“This evidence has been associated with improvements in a wide range of cognitive test results, namely those measuring attention, processing speed, executive function, and memory [2,9,11,12].”