Goodwill: A reexamination of the construct and its measurement

“After Richmond et al.‘s (1987) seminal work, a number of studies have used perceptions of learning as a cognitive outcome (Baker, 2004; Butland & Beebe, 1992; Chesebro & McCroskey, 2001; Christensen & Menzel, 1998; Christophel, 1990; Comadina, Hunt, & Simond, 2007; Gorham, 1988; McCroskey et al.”

“First, the relationship between Rand Public Health Disaster Trust Scale and the McCroskey and Teven (1999) Measure of Source Credibility was examined.”

“Although researchers have operationalised this construct rather differently since its inception, a widely accepted current model is the three-dimensional model developed by McCroskey and Teven (1999), which we adopt in the present study.”

“Social scientists (e.g., Hovland & Weiss, 1951; McCroskey & Teven, 1999) have long been attuned to the merits of an individual’s credibility, especially relative to persuasion-related goals.”

“These items, adapted from several sources (Goldsmith et al., 2000; Kamins et al., 1989; Hovland et al., 1953; Kenton, 1989; McCrosky & Teven, 1999; Ohanian, 1990) assess participants’ agreement with the statements: “I think candidate Jones is believable,” “I think candidate eral credibility are…”

“The measure of credibility from McCroskey and Teven (1999) employs six semantic differential items anchored with two antonyms for each dimension (i.e., Self-centered/Not self-centered in the dimension of Goodwill).”

“McCroskey and Teven (1999) asked whether the speaker cares about me, has my interests at heart and is not self-centered.”

“Items for perceived credibility were adapted from the work of McCroskey and Teven [53].”

“Teacher credibility was operationalized with the Source Credibility Measure (SCM) (McCroskey & Teven, 1999), which consisted of eighteen 7-point bipolar descriptions (e.g., intelligent/unintelligent, and trustworthy/untrustworthy) designed to measure three dimensions of perceived source credibility: competence, caring…”

“Youssef et al. (2015) Subjective: Custom made questionnaire on belief bond (Chriss, 2007; Hirschi, 2002); Attachment bond: Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), Pleasure, stress-free feelings, closeness, caring, likeability (Bradley & Lang, 1994; Bartneck et al., 2009; McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“Credibility and authenticity of information provided, particularly when intended for marketing purposes, on any platform are crucial elements in making the consumer trust the source (Bhattacherjee and Sanford, 2006; Hennig-Thurau et al., 2002; McCroskey and Teven, 1999).”

“Credibility was measured with nine items adapted from McCroskey and Teven (1999) on a 8-point scale that assessed the scientist’s expertise, intelligence, competence, trustworthiness, sensitivity, sincerity, concern for society, care for society, and honesty [25].”

“Although previous studies have indicated high reliabilities for McCroskey and Teven (1999) scale, high validations of these scales across all subsequent uses cannot be assumed (Levine, Hullett, Turner, & Lapinski, 2006).”

“Similarly, goodwill, which can be defined as perceived caring (McCroskey and Teven, 1999), can be seen as an outcome of PIR because diverse opinions and perspectives will be encouraged and supported through this perspective thereby fostering care.”

“McCroskey and Teven (1999) envision goodwill as “perceived caring,” a multi-dimensional construct consisting of understanding, empathy, and responsiveness.”

“Overall, our results suggested that students do indeed want and expect to use technology in the classroom, and if instructors meet this expectation, they are perceived to be more credible (i.e., competent, caring, and trustworthy; McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“While measures such as the PANAS [51] and Source Credibility Scale [34] are more widely used (also in HRI), we chose to use the Godspeed questionnaire as a tool to compare different robot configurations, as suggested by Bartneck et al.”

“…to which a perceiver believes a sender to know the truth), trustworthiness (i.e., the degree to which a perceiver believes a sender would tell the truth as they know it), and goodwill (i.e., the degree to which a perceiver believes a sender has the receiver’s best interests at heart) [61, 70].”

“…(print)/ISSN 1479-5795 (online) © 2015 National Communication Association http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2015.1014386 defined in the research as a source’s ethos, which comprises intelligence, character, and goodwill (McCroskey & Teven, 1999; McCroskey & Young, 1981; Teven & McCroskey, 1997).”

“the transgressor) needs to be perceived as sincere (Basford et al., 2014; McCroskey and Teven 1999).”

“Perceptions of instructor credibility were measured using McCroskey and Teven ’ s (1999) 18-item Source Credibility scale, which uses a 7-point semantic-differential scale.”

“The survey contained seven instruments: the 18-item Measure of Ethos/Credibility scale (McCroskey & Teven, 1999), the task attraction and social attraction subscales of the Measure of Interpersonal Attraction (McCroskey & McCain, 1974), the attitude homophily and background homophily scales of the…”

“It was measured using a six-item, seven-point semantic differential scale adapted from Eisend (2006), McCroskey and Teven (1999) and Ohanian (1990).”

“Source credibility is the degree to which a receiver perceives a source as being competent, trustworthy, and/or caring (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“McCroskey and Teven (1999) argue that credibility is the degree to which receivers perceive the source’s level of competence, trustworthiness, and caring.”

“McCroskey & Teven, 1999 ), the revised Measure of Interpersonal Attraction (L.”

“…instructor is viewed as intelligent, knowledgeable, and informed (McCroskey, 1992); a trustworthy teacher is considered honest, honorable, moral, and genuine (McCroskey & Teven, 1999); and a caring instructor is perceived as being concerned, sensitive, and understanding (McCroskey & Teven).”

“Viewed as a potent type of persuasive proof since the time of Aristotle, credibility is understood to be comprised of three dimensions: competence, trustworthiness, and goodness (McCroskey & Teven, 1999 ; McCroskey & Young, 1981 ; Teven & McCroskey, 1996 ).”

“Construct validity of the scale was established in a study by McCroskey and Teven (1999).”

“McCroskey and Teven (1999) adapted the GBM to measure liking and believability.”

“The last sub-construct called goodwill can be defined as the perceived interest of a source for one’s own personal well-being [13].”

“Teacher credibility is reportedly comprised of three dimensions: competence, trustworthiness, and caring (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“The scales we used to measure trust and rapport have been used in other VR research in our laboratory (Hale & Hamilton, 2016) and are similar to other validated questionnaires (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“McCroskey and Teven (1999) state that generally theorists have agreed that there is a dimension that can be referenced as “competence” (qualification, expertness, intelligence, authoritativeness) and one that can be referenced as “trustworthiness” (character, sagacity, safety, honesty), but the…”

“Participants then answered a source credibility questionnaire [5].”

“Communication researchers conceptualized this multidimensional construct from Aristotle’s tripartite view of ethos: intelligence, character, and goodwill (Pogue and AhYun, 2006), operationalizing these three dimensions as competence, trustworthiness, and caring (McCroskey and Teven, 1999).”

“Previous researchers have demonstrated the construct validity and internal reliability of the credibility scale (e.g., Finn et al., 2009; McCroskey & Teven, 1999; Schrodt &Witt 2006).”

“Six of the items were taken from the expertise dimension McCroskey and Teven (1999)’s credibility scale: “unintelligent-intelligent,” “untrained-trained,” “inexpert-expert,” “uninformed-informed,” “incompetent-competent,” and “stupid-bright.””

“These dimensions and measures show similarities to the dimensions of competence, trustworthiness, and goodwill/ caring identified by McCroskey and Teven (1999), rooted in theoretical foundations reaching back to Aristotle.”

“The SCS is an 18-item survey comprising three separate measures that capture respondents’ perceptions of an individual’s “competence, trustworthiness, and goodwill/caring.””

“…we have relied on established measures of teacher nonverbal immediacy (McCroskey, Sallinen, Fayer, Richmond, & Barraclough, 1996; Richmond, McCroskey, & Johnson, 2003), credibility (McCroskey & Teven, 1999), and clarity (Chesebro & McCroskey, 1998; Sidelinger & McCroskey, 1997; Simonds, 1997).”

“Credibility was measured using Teven and McCroskey ’ s 18-item measure of credibility (McCroskey & Teven, 1999) that is comprised of three subscales of credibility including competence, trustworthiness, and goodwill.”

“Previous versions of the scale have reported reliability coefficients ranging from .78 to .85 (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“Based on previous research on credibility (McCroskey & Teven, 1999; McCroskey & Young, 1981) we coded for several factors commonly associated with source credibility and combined them into a single composite measures.”

“Source credibility consists of three dimensions: expertise, trustworthiness, and goodwill (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“The selection of appropriate spokespersons can help to enhance message persuasiveness because positive spokesperson traits impact viewers’ feelings toward advertised messages (Byrne et al., 2012; Major & Coleman, 2013; McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“Robot credibility was measured using questionnaire items designed to measure credibility of a human source; with 5-point Likert question items arranged in subscales of expertise, trustworthiness, goodwill and sociability (as presented in [6], adapted from [11] and [12]).”

“These three factors, including teachers’ personality or characteristics, caring, and adequate knowledge of subject matter, are linked to the construct of teacher credibility (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“Instructor caring is demonstrated through the use of messages or behaviors that convey empathy, understanding, and responsiveness (McCroskey & Teven, 1999; Teven & McCroskey, 1997).”

“Teacher credibility was operationalized with the Source Credibility Measure (SCM) (McCroskey & Teven, 1999), which consists of eighteen 7-point bipolar descriptions (e.g., intelligent=unintelligent and trustworthy=untrustworthy) designed to reflect the three dimensions of perceived source…”

“…perceptions of teacher goodwill/caring (Teven, 2001; Teven & Gorham, 1998; Teven & Hanson, 2004), and that perceived teacher goodwill/caring affects educational outcomes (Teven, 2007; Teven & McCroskey, 1997) and positive affect toward teachers (Chory, 2007; McCroskey & Teven, 1999; Teven, 2007).”

“Scale reliabilities for Study 2 were as follows: Bartneck (1999) credibility construct across the three dimensions of competence ( M = 4.78, SD = 1.39, α = .91), caring ( M = 4.28, SD = 1.58, α = .91), and character ( M = 4.71, SD = 1.33, α = .88), McCroskey ’ s (1994) affect toward instructor…”

“Caring means that leaders are empathetic towards their voters’ problems, and that they take their interests at heart (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“For example, one study focused on competence, trustworthiness, and goodwill (McCroskey & Teven, 1999) as the basis of credibility whereas another focused on concepts like fairness, absence of bias, concern for community, and trained reporters (Gaziano & McGrath, 1986) as indicators of credibility.”

“Two commonly studied outcomes in the instructional literature are teacher credibility and affect for the teacher (e.g., McCroskey & Teven, 1999; Teven & McCroskey, 1997; Thweatt & McCroskey, 1998; McCroskey, Richmond, Plax, & Kearney, 1985).”

“Once students read the vignette, they completed the Measure of Source Credibility scale (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“Source credibility was captured using 18, seven-point semantic-differential items (e.g. ‘Not understanding/ Understanding’) created by McCroskey and Teven (1999).”

“The Measure of Source Credibility (McCroskey & Teven, 1999) was modified to be a 15-item measure designed to evaluate perceptions of credibility across the three dimensions: competence (5-items; e.g. “intelligent/unintelligent”), character (5-items; e.g., “trust-worthy/untrustworthy”), and caring (5-items; e.g., “care…”

“This demonstrates that “trustworthiness” and “credibility” are sometimes treated as interchangeable concepts, while at other times, trustworthiness is considered a subdimension of credibility (Jensen, 2008; McCroskey and Teven, 1999).”

“Various studies suggest that credibility positively influences attitudes toward another individual (e.g., an endorser or influencer) (Ohanian 1990; McCroskey and Teven 1999; Friedman, Santeramo, and Traina 1978).”

“…affective learning (McCroskey, 1994; Rodriguez, Plax, & Kearney, 1996; Titsworth, 2001), classroom climate (Mazer & Hunt, 2008; Myers, 1995; Myers & Rocca, 2001), and perceptions of teacher credibility (McCroskey, 1992; McCroskey & Teven, 1999; Teven & McCroskey, 1997; Thweatt & McCroskey, 1998).”

“…different studies using several different constructs which include—accuracy, fairness, bias, trustworthiness, telling the whole truth, believability, community affiliation, objectivity, competence, and goodwill (Johnson and Kaye 1998; McCroskey and Teven 1999; Meyer 1988; Rimmer and Weaver 1987).”

“The concept of source credibility originated from Aristotle’s notion of ethos, which is deemed the most effective and powerful approach to persuasion (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“Caring is conceptualized as having others’ best intentions at heart by being understanding, empathic, and responsive (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”

“In a follow-up study employing confirmatory factor analysis, McCroskey and Teven (1999) provided further evidence of the existence of the distinct construct and of reliability and validity for the new goodwill/caring measure.”

“In this context, credibility is the degree to which students consider their instructors to be competent, have character, and demonstrate caring (McCroskey & Teven, 1999).”