Cited by 981Cognitive Abilities and TestingNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesCognitive Functions and Memory

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 79 of the 79 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The concurrent validity of the N -back task as a working memory measure

Jaeggi, Susanne M., Buschkuehl, Martin, Perrig, Walter J., Meier, Beat·2010·Memory

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

The N-back task is used extensively in literature as a working memory (WM) paradigm and it is increasingly used as a measure of individual differences. However, not much is known about the psychometric properties of this task and the current study aims to shed more light on this issue. We first review the current literature on the psychometric properties of the N-back task. With three experiments using task variants with different stimuli and load levels, we then investigate the nature of the N-back task by investigating its relationship to WM, and its role as an inter-individual difference measure. Consistent with previous literature, our data suggest that the N-back task is not a useful measure of individual differences in WM, partly because of its insufficient reliability. Nevertheless, the task seems to be useful for experimental research in WM and also well predicts inter-individual differences in other higher cognitive functions, such as fluid intelligence, especially when used at higher levels of load.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/09658211003702171

Cites

79 of 79 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779
Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.122 · Cited by 4,153
Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies
Carroll, J. B. (1993) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511571312 · Cited by 4,121
N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies.
Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20131 · Cited by 3,560
Human cognitive abilities a survey of factor-analytic studies
Carroll, J. B. (2004) · Cited by 3,395
Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia.
Snodgrass, J. G., & Corwin, J. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.117.1.34 · Cited by 3,093
Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.
Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. A. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309 · Cited by 3,078
Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196772 · Cited by 2,882

Show all 77 references

Research works printed but not linked: 2

Tewes , U. 1991 . Hamburg-Wechsler-Intelligenztest für Erwachsene-Revision 1991 (HAWIE-R) , Bern : Hans Huber .
Wechsler , D. 1981 . WAIS-R Manual , New York : The Psychological Corporation .

Sorted by citations

Items 401–500 of 977

Oxygen: The Rate-Limiting Factor for Episodic Memory Performance, Even in Healthy Young Individuals
Suzin, G., Frolinger, T. H., Yogev, D., Hadanny, A., Catalogna, M., Rassovsky, Y., & Efrati, S. (2020) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom10091328 · Cited by 11
“The N-back task captures the active part of working memory when N ≥ 2 [15].”
Background
Playing a Video Game and Learning to Think: What’s the Connection?
Wells, A. K., Mayer, R. E., Plass, J. L., & Homer, B. D. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00214-7 · Cited by 14
“…fosters effort in exercising spatial updating skill Adapted from Parong et al. (2020) The n-back task was used because it is a classic updating task (Jaeggi et al., 2010), and because the custom game being used in this study, CrushStations, was designed to have similar cognitive demands as an…”
BackgroundMethod
A proof-of-concept sub-study exploring feasibility and preliminary evidence for the role of physical activity on neural activity during executive functioning tasks among young adults after cancer treatment
Wurz, A. J., Ayson, G., Smith, A., & Brunet, J. (2021) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-021-02280-y · Cited by 14
“Pairing EF tasks, such as the letter n-back (capturing working memory; [15]) or the Go/No Go (capturing response inhibition; [16]), with neuroimaging techniques can be used to explore neural activity during EF task performance [17, 18].”
Method
The perception of intonational and emotional speech prosody produced with and without a face mask: an exploratory individual differences study
Sinagra, C., & Wiener, S. (2022) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-022-00439-w · Cited by 11
Is cortical inhibition in primary motor cortex related to executive control?
Loomes, M., Tran, D. M. D., Chowdhury, N. S., Birney, D. P., Harris, J. A., & Livesey, E. J. (2023) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.12.013 · Cited by 13
Heroin use and neuropsychological impairments: comparison of intravenous and inhalational use
Ghosh, A., Shaktan, A., Nehra, R., Basu, D., Verma, A., Rana, D. K., Modi, M., & Ahuja, C. K. (2023) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-023-06332-8 · Cited by 11
Evaluating the validity of game-based assessments measuring cognitive function among children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Aneni, K., de la Vega, I. G., Jiao, M. G., Funaro, M. C., & Fiellin, L. E. (2023) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2023.02.002 · Cited by 17
Comparable responses to a wide range of olfactory stimulation in women and men
Lillqvist, M., Claeson, A., Zakrzewska, M., & Andersson, L. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-35936-5 · Cited by 10
Tarefa N-back auditiva: desempenho entre diferentes grupos etários
Nardi, T. D., Sanvicente‐Vieira, B., Prando, M. L., Stein, L. M., Fonseca, R. P., & Grassi‐Oliveira, R. (2013) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1590/s0102-79722013000100016 · Cited by 14
Specific Effects of Anger Rumination on Particular Executive Functions
Ding, X., Yang, Y., Qian, M., & Gordon-Hollingsworth, A. T. (2015) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/02.09.pr0.117c24z8 · Cited by 11
Memory and learning with rapid audiovisual sequences
Keller, A. S., & Sekuler, R. (2015) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/15.15.7 · Cited by 11
Sleep Health and Psychopathology Mediate Executive Deficits in Pediatric Obesity
Pearce, A. L., Mackey, E. R., Nadler, E. P., & Vaidya, C. J. (2018) · Childhood Obesity · doi:10.1089/chi.2017.0281 · Cited by 13
“…of an action after it is planned (stop signal task [SST]), 25 dynamic working memory requiring trial-to-trial updating with load manipulation, 26 and with ecologically relevant assessment of regulatory and metacognitive executive difﬁculties using the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive…”
Alterations in sleep electroencephalography synchrony in combat-exposed veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder
Laxminarayan, S., Wang, C., Ramakrishnan, S., Oyama, T., Cashmere, J. D., Germain, A., & Jaques Reifman, A. (2020) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsaa006 · Cited by 11
“We evaluated daytime cognitive performance on days 1 and 2 by measuring reaction time (RT) on the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) [22], which assesses alertness, and the RT of correct trials on the N-back task (0-back, 1-back, and 2-back) [23], which assesses working memory.”
Method
Eating up cognitive resources: Does attentional consumption lead to food consumption?
Volz, S. C., Ward, A. C., & Mann, T. L. (2021) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2021.105165 · Cited by 12
An Investigation of the Multilingual and Bi-dialectal Advantage in Executive Control.
Antoniou, K., & Spanoudis, G. C. (2020) · Ktisis at Cyprus University of Technology (Cyprus University of Technology) · Cited by 11
The Box Task: A tool to design experiments for assessing visuospatial working memory
Kessels, R. P. C., & Postma, A. (2017) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0966-7 · Cited by 13
“To measure working memory processing, a number of paradigms have been developed (see Postma & van der Ham, 2016, for an overview), such as span tasks – either verbal (Blankenship, 1938) or spatial (Berch, Krikorian, & Huha, 1998) in nature – or running working memory tasks such as n -back paradigms (see Jaeggi, Buschk…”
Background
The Noisy Brain: Power of Resting-State Fluctuations Predicts Individual Recognition Performance
Grossman, S., Yeagle, E. M., Harel, M., Espinal, E., Harpaz, R., Noy, N., Mégevand, P., Groppe, D. M., Mehta, A. D., & Malach, R. (2019) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2019.11.081 · Cited by 12
Hacking the functions of sleep: noninvasive approaches to stimulate sleep neurophysiology
Krugliakova, E., Breuer, F., Adelhöfer, N., Alonso, A., Besedovsky, L., Murphy, K. R., Peters, E., Raczek, K., Rasch, B., Salvesen, L., et al. (2025) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00007.2025 · Cited by 21
The Association between Working Hours with Vigilance and Executive Function of Intensive Care Unit Nurses
Jing, M., Li, H., Li, C., Wei, X., Lin, W., Zhu, S.-C., Xu, Y.-L., & Li, L. (2023) · Journal of Nursing Management · doi:10.1155/2023/3770404 · Cited by 10
Higher substance use is associated with low executive control neural activity and higher inflammation
Nusslock, R., Kogan, S. M., Yu, T., Armstrong, C. C., Chen, E., Miller, G. E., Brody, G. H., & Sweet, L. H. (2024) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2024.06.018 · Cited by 10
“This is a widely employed functional MRI paradigm (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Owen et al., 2005) that has been shown to reliably elicit activation responses from brain regions associated with working memory and executive control, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), superior frontal…”
Evidence for separate backward recall and n -back working memory factors: a large-scale latent variable analysis
Byrne, E. M., Gilbert, R. A., Kievit, R., & Holmes, J. (2024) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2024.2393388 · Cited by 12
The effect of computerized cognitive training and transcranial direct current stimulation on working memory among post-stroke individuals: a systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression
Kazinczi, C., Kocsis, K., Boross, K., Racsmány, M., Klivènyi, P., Vécsei, L., & Must, A. (2024) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-024-03813-x · Cited by 15
Modulating Heart Activity and Task Performance using Haptic Heartbeat Feedback: A Study Across Four Body Placements
Valente, A., Lee, D., Choi, S., Billinghurst, M., & Esteves, A. (2024) · ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST) · doi:10.1145/3654777.3676435 · Cited by 10
Working memory load improves diagnostic performance of smooth pursuit eye movement in mild traumatic brain injury patients with protracted recovery
Stubbs, J. L., Corrow, S. L., Kiang, B. R., Corrow, J. C., Pearce, H. L., Cheng, A., Barton, J. J. S., & Panenka, W. J. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36286-3 · Cited by 12
Changes in Error Patterns during N-back Training Indicate Reliance on Subvocal Rehearsal
Chooi, W.-T., & Logie, R. H. (2020) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-020-01066-w · Cited by 12
The influence of a glucose administration on stress responsivity and memory after a socially evaluated cold pressor test
Rüttgens, T., & Wolf, O. T. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105803 · Cited by 14
Working memory is supported by learning to represent items as actions
Cochrane, A., & Green, C. S. (2023) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-023-02654-z · Cited by 10
“Here, it is worth noting that while both approaches are quite common (Foster et al., 2015; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Unsworth & Engle, 2007; van den Berg et al., 2012), they actually make opposite assumptions.”
Background
TAG-ME again: A serious game for measuring working memory
Hu, Y. Z., Parimoo, S., Chignell, M., Lowe, C. J., & Morton, J. B. (2023) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2023.2183361 · Cited by 10
“Stimuli appeared for 1000 ms, and the interstimulus interval was set to 1200 ms. Target stimuli appeared in 30% of the trials (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Miller et al., 2009), for a total of three targets in each practice block and 18 targets in each experimental block.”
Cognitive Load and Deception Detection Performance
Wielgopolan, A., & Imbir, K. K. (2023) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13321 · Cited by 13
Executive functions in patients with bilateral and unilateral peripheral vestibular dysfunction
Schöne, C. G., Vibert, D., & Mast, F. W. (2024) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-024-12267-7 · Cited by 10
Working Memory Capacity of ChatGPT: An Empirical Study
Gong, D., Wan, X., & Wang, D. (2024) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v38i9.28868 · Cited by 19
“Typical human performance drops significantly when n = 3 (Klatzky et al. 2008; Amon and Bertenthal 2018; Jaeggi et al. 2010), which can be defined as the working memory capacity limit of an average human.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Investigating the Effect of Fatigue and Psychological Distress on Information Processing Speed in the Postacute Period After Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Premorbidly Healthy Adults
Anderson, J. F. I., & Cockle, E. (2020) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acaa123 · Cited by 10
Perks of blindness: Enhanced verbal memory span in blind over sighted adults
Arcos, K., Jaeggi, S. M., & Grossman, E. D. (2022) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2022.147943 · Cited by 11
“The following consonants were selected for the n-back task to minimize confusion, maximize clarity, and for standardized letter duration when heard: C, D, G, K, P, Q, T, and V (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
MethodSelf-citation
Working memory training shows immediate and long-term effects on cognitive performance in children
Pugin, F., Metz, A. J., Stauffer, M., Wolf, M., Jenni, O. G., & Huber, R. (2015) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.3665.3 · Cited by 11
Decision Making and Fibromyalgia: A Systematic Review
Alfeo, F., Decarolis, D., Clemente, L., Delussi, M. D., de Tommaso, M., Curci, A., & Lanciano, T. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12111452 · Cited by 10
Compensatory brain activity pattern is not present in older adults during the n-back task performance—Findings based on EEG frequency analysis
Zając-Lamparska, L., Zabielska‐Mendyk, E., Zapała, D., & Augustynowicz, P. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1371035 · Cited by 8
“The n-back task is a well-known measure of WM eﬃciency in content updating (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Schmiedek et al., 2014).”
Background
An fNIRS-based investigation of cerebral hemodynamic responses during verbal fluency task and n-back task in individuals with mild cognitive impairment
Duan, C., Chong, Y., Gong, J., Wu, Q., Sun, J., Zheng, C., Li, Z., Xia, L., Cheng, Z., Zhang, P., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2025.1571964 · Cited by 10
“The 1-back has a low cognitive load and is suitable for the ability range of patients with MCI, which can effectively detect impairment of working memory in patients with MCI, while avoiding obscuring the true ability due to difficult tasks (31, 32).”
Transient Modulation of Working Memory Performance and Event-Related Potentials by Transcranial Static Magnetic Field Stimulation over the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
Chen, X., Watanabe, T., Kubo, N., Yunoki, K., Matsumoto, T., Kuwabara, T., Sunagawa, T., Date, S., Mima, T., & Kirimoto, H. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11060739 · Cited by 13
“565) and a significant simple interaction of condition × time (F [3,36] = 7.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Working memory training does not improve executive functioning or fluid intelligence
Rodas, J. A., & Greene, C. M. (2021) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218211039502 · Cited by 10
“Visuospatial n-back task (experimental group) ( Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
Comparing the Transfer Effects of Three Neurocognitive Training Protocols in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Single-Case Experimental Design
Zhang, D., Johnstone, S. J., Li, H., Luo, X., & Sun, L. (2021) · Behaviour Change · doi:10.1017/bec.2021.26 · Cited by 9
Gamma-Band Modulation in Parietal Area as the Electroencephalographic Signature for Performance in Auditory–Verbal Working Memory: An Exploratory Pilot Study in Hearing and Unilateral Cochlear Implant Children
Inguscio, B. M. S., Cartocci, G., Sciaraffa, N., Nicastri, M., Giallini, I., Greco, A., Babiloni, F., & Mancini, P. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12101291 · Cited by 9
Examining the Factorial Structure, Reliability, and Predictive Validity of the Portuguese Version of the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure (CAMM)
Limpo, T., Rasteiro, I., Aguiar, S., & Magalhães, S. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-02003-5 · Cited by 8
“Given their distinctive features, it is likely that these tasks tap into different dimensions of working memory (Bühner et al., 2006; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007) that may relate differently with mindfulness.”
Background
EFFECT OF AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL FALSE MEMORY ON THE COMPLEXITY OF NEURAL OSCILLATIONS
Shabani, M., Sadeghi, M., Salehi, J., NAMAZI, H., & Khosrowabadi, R. (2023) · Fractals · doi:10.1142/s0218348x23501165 · Cited by 9
Creating a new dynamic measure of the useful field of view using gaze-contingent displays
Ringer, R. V., Johnson, A. P., Gaspar, J. G., Neider, M. B., Crowell, J., Kramer, A. F., & Loschky, L. C. (2014) · ACM Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications (ETRA) · doi:10.1145/2578153.2578160 · Cited by 9
Working memory training shows immediate and long-term effects on cognitive performance in children and adolescents
Pugin, F., Metz, A. J., Stauffer, M., Wolf, M., Jenni, O. G., & Huber, R. (2014) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.3665.1 · Cited by 9
Does multitasking mediate the relationships between episodic memory, attention, executive functions and apathetic manifestations in traumatic brain injury?
Arnould, A., Rochat, L., Dromer, E., Azouvi, P., & der Linden, M. V. (2016) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1111/jnp.12107 · Cited by 9
Longitudinal Course and Predictors of Apathetic Symptoms after Severe Traumatic Brain Injury
Arnould, A., Rochat, L., Azouvi, P., & der Linden, M. V. (2017) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acx122 · Cited by 10
Memory bias and its association with memory function in women with posttraumatic stress disorder
Itoh, M., Hori, H., Lin, M., Niwa, M., Ino, K., Imai, R., Ogawa, S., Matsui, M., Kamo, T., & Kim, Y. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.10.365 · Cited by 11
Impact of pressure as a tactile stimulus on working memory in healthy participants
Nayyeri, M. D., Burgmer, M., & Pfleiderer, B. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0213070 · Cited by 9
“The fMRI activations of the fronto-parietal network corroborated previous findings of brain activity when using this visual working memory task [36, 41, 42].”
Method
A pilot study of diffusion tensor imaging metrics and cognitive performance pre and post repetitive, intentional sub-concussive heading in soccer practice
Kenny, R., Mayo, C. D., Kennedy, S., Varga, A. A., Stuart-Hill, L. A., García-Barrera, M. A., McQuarrie, A. M., Christie, B. R., & Gawryluk, J. R. (2019) · Journal of Concussion · doi:10.1177/2059700219885503 · Cited by 9
Simultaneous non-Gaussian component analysis (SING) for data integration in neuroimaging
Risk, B. B., & Gaynanova, I. (2021) · The Annals of Applied Statistics · doi:10.1214/21-aoas1466 · Cited by 9
“In this paper, we focus on the N -back working memory task, which is a popular task used in cognition studies that may be related to fluid intelligence (Jaeggi et al., 2010), and rs-fMRI.”
Method
Sex‐dependent prefrontal cortex activation in regular cocaine users: A working memory functional magnetic resonance imaging study
Cousijn, J., Ridderinkhof, K. R., & Kaag, A. M. (2021) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.13003 · Cited by 8
“However, the n-back task is generally considered to be less reliable to assess behavioral WM-related deficits.(47) As such, the behavioral implications of the current findings remain speculative and future research may benefit from including a more reliable WM task outside the MRI scanner to assess behavioral WM perfo…”
How spatial information structuring in an interactive technological environment affects decision performance under working memory load
Brich, I. R., Bause, I. M., Hesse, F. W., & Wesslein, A. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106860 · Cited by 9
Modulation of brain states on fractal and oscillatory power of EEG in brain–computer interfaces
Zhang, S., Yan, X., Wang, Y., Liu, B., & Gao, X. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac2628 · Cited by 9
“To induce the fatigue state of subjects, a three-back working memory task was employed (Jaeggi et al 2010, Soveri et al 2017).”
Cognitive Workload Impacts of Simulated Visibility Changes During Search and Surveillance Tasks Quantified by Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy
Kerr, J., Reddy, P., Shewokis, P. A., & İzzetoğlu, K. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems · doi:10.1109/thms.2022.3155368 · Cited by 9
Effects of operational assessment of the 4:4 and 4:4/6:6 watch systems on sleepiness, fatigue, and stress responses during patrolling on a navy missile patrol boat
Myllylä, M., Kyröläinen, H., Ojanen, T., Ruohola, J., Heinonen, O. J., Vahlberg, T. J., & Parkkola, K. I. (2022) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2022.2090374 · Cited by 9
“The n-back task (N-Back) is a continuous performance task that is considered useful for experimental research in working memory and is also considered to predict interindividual differences in fluid intelligence (Jaeggi et al. 2010).”
Background
Neurocognitive and self-reported psychosocial and behavioral functioning in siblings of individuals with neurodevelopmental conditions: a study using remote self-administered testing
Wolff, B., Franco, V. R., Magiati, I., Pestell, C., & Glasson, E. J. (2023) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2023.2259042 · Cited by 11
“It assesses how often an individual can identify whether the current stimulus matches the one two trials back using continuous maintaining and updating of the previous two items viewed (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethod
Emotional content impacts how executive function ability relates to willingness to wait and to work for reward
Damme, K. S. F., Kelley, N. J., Quinn, M. E., Glazer, J. E., Chat, I. K.-Y., Young, K. S., Nusslock, R., Zinbarg, R. E., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Craske, M. G. (2019) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-019-00712-4 · Cited by 13
Using functional connectivity models to characterize relationships between working and episodic memory
Stark, G. F., Avery, E. W., Rosenberg, M. D., Greene, A. S., Gao, S., Scheinost, D., Constable, R. T., Chun, M. M., & Yoo, K. (2021) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2105 · Cited by 8
The Critical Robot: Impact of Performance Feedback on Intrinsic Motivation, Self-Esteem and Psychophysiology in Human–Robot Interaction
Marx, C., Könczöl, C., Altmanninger, A., & Kubicek, B. (2024) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-024-01147-9 · Cited by 8
“Thus, their accuracy was higher than the 66% accuracy reported in previous validation studies [48].”
Cognitive performance in the heat: A prediction with heart rate variability (HRV) time-domain indices
Zhu, H., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Su, H., & Yu, C. W. (2024) · Indoor and Built Environment · doi:10.1177/1420326x241284031 · Cited by 8
“The Subjects need to press as fast as they can on the button located under the circle that lights up as soon as it lights up To measure the reaction time and information processing speed of subjects N-back Task 46 Subjects are presented with a sequence of stimuli, and the task consists of indicating when the current s…”
Influential
Does working memory training in children need to be adaptive? A randomized controlled trial
Lau, R. C., Anderson, P. J., Gathercole, S. E., Wiley, J. F., & Spencer‐Smith, M. M. (2024) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14180 · Cited by 9
“For the remaining 20 trials (6 target/same and 14 non-target/not same trials), children had to decide if the current object matched the object presented two items ago (Byrne et al., 2020; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Katz et al., 2014).”
The effect of cognitive control on addiction relapse
Gilbey, H., & Wilcockson, T. D. W. (2024) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.1080/16066359.2024.2426469 · Cited by 8
“The task requires individuals to encode, maintain, and monitor previous stimuli while simultaneously deciding if the present stimulus is the same as the stimulus appearing n steps back in the series (Jaeggi et al. 2010).”
Driver cognitive load estimation in conditional driving with aligned attention-enabled multimodal fusion
Wang, A., Yang, H., Wang, J., Yang, H., & He, D. (2025) · Transportation Research Part C Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1016/j.trc.2025.105471 · Cited by 9
Human functional neuroimaging
Kilts, C. D., & Ely, T. D. (2012) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-52002-9.00007-3 · Cited by 8
Attentional resources contribute to the perceptual learning of talker idiosyncrasies in audiovisual speech
Jesse, A., & Kaplan, E. (2019) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-018-01651-x · Cited by 8
Gaze-based Metrics of Cognitive Load in a Conjunctive Visual Memory Task
Bacchin, D., Gehrer, N. A., Krejtz, K., Duchowski, A. T., & Gamberini, L. (2023) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/3544549.3585650 · Cited by 8
“The n-back task is challenging as it requires simultaneous management of multiple cognitive processes [Jaeggi et al. 2010].”
Method
Take a Load Off: Understanding, Measuring, and Reducing Cognitive Load for Cardiologists in High-Stakes Care Environments
Schaffer, C., Goldart, E., Ligsay, A., Mazwi, M., Gallant, S. N., & Ehrmann, D. E. (2023) · Current Treatment Options in Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s40746-023-00272-3 · Cited by 8
Using an OpenDS Driving Simulator for Car Following
Green, P., Jeong, H., & Kang, T.-P. (2014) · International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications (AutomotiveUI) · doi:10.1145/2667239.2667295 · Cited by 8
“…'14, Sep 17-19 2014, Seattle, WA, USA ACM 978-1-4503-0725-3/14/09. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2667239.2667295 Abstract This paper describes the modifications to free, opensource driving simulator software to simulate a carfollowing task resembling that in the NHTSA driver distraction protocol.”
MethodInfluential
Object individuation and compensation in healthy aging
Pagano, S., Fait, E., Brignani, D., & Mazza, V. (2016) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.01.013 · Cited by 10
“However, most studies conducted thus far involved tasks where participants had to maintain in memory a specific item for a variable amount of time (n-back tasks, see Jaeggi et al., 2010; Daffner et al., 2011).”
Background
Can we measure working memory via the Internet? The reliability and factorial validity of an online n-back task
Kulikowski, K., & Potasz-Kulikowska, K. (2016) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1515/ppb-2016-0006 · Cited by 12
“As in the study of Jaeggi et al. (2010a), we used n-back without lure trials, one of the n-back versions accepted in the literature (Redick, & Lindsey, Konrad Kulikowski, Katarzyna Potasz-Kulikowska54 Can we measure working memory via the Internet?”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Neural Plastic Effects of Working Memory Training Influenced by Self-perceived Stress in Stroke: A Case Illustration
Leung, A. W. S., Barrett, L. M., Butterworth, D., Werther, K., DAWSON, D. R., & Brintnell, E. S. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01266 · Cited by 8
“They were trained on a computerized auditory WM task (n-back) 5 days a week for 6 weeks, for a total of 20 h. Participant 1 had high levels of perceived stress, both pre- and post-training, and showed improvement on the satisfaction aspect of functional engagement only.”
Method
Self-appraisals and episodic memory: Different psychological factors related to patient versus informant reports of apathy in severe traumatic brain injury
Arnould, A., Rochat, L., Azouvi, P., & der Linden, M. V. (2018) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2017.1411468 · Cited by 7
Human Gaze-Parameters as an Indicator of Mental Workload
Volden, F. S., Edirisinghe, V. D. A., & Fostervold, K. I. (2018) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96059-3_23 · Cited by 8
Relationship among Executive Functions, Vocabulary and Reading Skills in School-Aged Children with and without Poor Vocabulary
Yoo, J., & Yim, D. (2018) · Eon'eo cheong'gag jang'ae yeon'gu/Communication sciences & disorders · doi:10.12963/csd.18523 · Cited by 10
Increased Working Memory Load in a Dual-Task Design Impairs Nonverbal Social Encoding in Children with High and Low Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms
Hilton, D. C., Jarrett, M. A., Rondon, A. T., Tutek, J., & Mulla, M. M. (2019) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-019-00915-3 · Cited by 10
Working memory in action: inspecting the systematic and unsystematic errors of spatial memory across saccades
Frost, A., Tomou, G., Parikh, H., Kaur, J., Zivcevska, M., & Niemeier, M. (2019) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-019-05623-x · Cited by 10
“1 3 one does with CD, even though stimulus presentation in the two tasks is rather different and 2-back is sometimes considered as a specialized and non-general measure of working memory compared to other tasks that preclude any eye movements (Kane et al. 2007; Jaeggi et al. 2010).”
Inhibitory Learning versus Habituation in an Experimental Exposure Intervention for People With Heightened Health Anxiety: Increase of Distress Tolerance as a Joint Mechanism of Change?
Sauer, K. S., & Witthöft, M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.1177/20438087221138716 · Cited by 10
“…n-back task, only correlating to a very limited extent with other working memory tasks (e.g., digit span) and potentially even measuring other constructs (e.g., fluid intelligence) especially in higher load levels (Jaeggi, Buschkuehl et al., 2010; Jaeggi et al., 2010), could have played a role.”
Background
Do emotions evoked by music modulate visuospatial working memory capacity? A physiological study
Ribeiro, F. S., Santos, F. H., & Albuquerque, P. B. (2022) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/03057356221135352 · Cited by 8
Quantifying mental workload of operators performing n-back working memory task: Toward fNIRS based passive BCI system
Berivanlou, N. H., Setarehdan, S. K., & Noubari, H. A. (2016) · National and International Iranian Conference on Biomedical Engineering (ICBME) · doi:10.1109/icbme.2016.7890945 · Cited by 8
Practice makes perfect: High performance gains in older adults engaged in selective attention within and across sensory modalities
Rienäcker, F., Jacobs, H. I. L., Heugten, C. M. V., & Gerven, P. W. M. V. (2018) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.09.005 · Cited by 9
Stress Measurement in Multi-tasking Decision Processes Using Executive Functions Analysis
Paletta, L., Pszeida, M., Nauschnegg, B., Haspl, T., & Marton, R. (2019) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20473-0_33 · Cited by 8
A randomised double-blind trial of cognitive training for the prevention of psychopathology in at-risk youth
Mewton, L. R., Hodge, A., Gates, N. J., Visontay, R., Lees, B., & Teesson, M. (2020) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2020.103672 · Cited by 9
Working Memory Training for Children Using the Adaptive, Self-Select, and Stepwise Approaches to Setting the Difficulty Level of Training Activities: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial
Lau, R. C., Anderson, P. J., Wiley, J. F., Huang, D., Surjatin, F., McIntosh, P., Gathercole, S. E., & Spencer‐Smith, M. M. (2023) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/47496 · Cited by 7
“In this 2-back test, the child was presented with a continuous stream of 22 common objects and animals (eg, carrot, flower, and cat; 6 targets and 16 nontargets), and the child had to decide for each object if it matched the object that was presented 2 items ago [5,33,34].”
Method
Dense attention network identifies EEG abnormalities during working memory performance of patients with schizophrenia
Perellón‐Alfonso, R., Oblak, A., Kuclar, M., Škrlj, B., Pileckyte, I., Škodlar, B., Pregelj, P., Abellaneda‐Pérez, K., David Bartrés-faz, A., Repovš, G., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1205119 · Cited by 7
“, N-back tasks; (20, 21)] or sequentially [e.”
Low working memory underpins the association between aberrant functional properties of pain modulation circuitry and chronic back pain severity
Veinot, J., Cane, D. B., & Hashmi, J. A. (2025) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2025.104795 · Cited by 7
The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function: A Comparative Study Among Active, Passive, and Non-Procrastinating College Students
Liu, C., & Zhang, J. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15020225 · Cited by 9
“Updating Function—N-back Task (E. E. Smith et al., 1998): The N-back task is a widely used standard measure of executive working memory in cognitive neuroscience with good reliability and validity (Jaeggi et al., 2016).”
Parietal alpha and theta power predict cognitive training gains in middle-aged adults
Juras, L., Hromatko, I., & Vranić, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2025.1530147 · Cited by 7
The roles of ability emotional intelligence in predicting affective decision-making
Sambol, S., Suleyman, E., & Ball, M. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02779-w · Cited by 17
“Participants were instructed to determine if the current letter matched the one presented either two, three, or four positions earlier in the sequence, depending on the specified N-back level [66].”
Electroencephalographic and cognitive task analysis of working memory and attention in athletes: A systematic review
Delgado, P., Passos, P., Tavares, F., & Ferreira, H. A. (2025) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102930 · Cited by 7
Why is cognitive effort experienced as costly?
Otto, A. R., Westbrook, A., & Jean Daunizeau, A. (2025) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2025.10.012 · Cited by 10
Stress and working memory in children and adolescents: Insights from a multisystem approach
Tsai, N., Mukhopadhyay, S., & Quas, J. A. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105176 · Cited by 7
Biophilic Design of Virtual Workplaces: Effect of Animations on User Attention
Romano, S., Laviola, E., Uva, A. E., & Gattullo, M. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48495-7_14 · Cited by 7
The Relationship of N200 and P300 Amplitudes With Intelligence, Working Memory, and Attentional Control Behavioral Measures In Young Healthy Individuals
Warchoł, Ł., & Zając-Lamparska, L. (2023) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0404-2 · Cited by 10
Mindfulness induction and executive function after high‐intensity interval training with and without mindful recovery intervals
Khatri, R. A., Baumgartner, N. W., Noh, K., Ullrich-French, S. C., Schmitt, S. A., Wang, C., & Kao, S. (2024) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.14558 · Cited by 7
Two are better than one: Differences in cortical EEG patterns during auditory and visual verbal working memory processing between Unilateral and Bilateral Cochlear Implanted children
Inguscio, B. M. S., Cartocci, G., Sciaraffa, N., Nicastri, M., Giallini, I., Aricò, P., Greco, A., Babiloni, F., & Mancini, P. (2024) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2024.109007 · Cited by 8
Computerized cognitive training to improve executive functions and driving skills of adolescents with and without symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Dehnabaei, Z., Tabibi, Z., Ouimet, M. C., Moghaddam, A. M., & Delavar, M. E. (2024) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2024.06.019 · Cited by 7
Responding to clinical alarms in unfolding simulated clinical scenarios: auditory icons perform better than tonal alarms
Edworthy, J. R., Talbot, N., & Martin, N. (2025) · British Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.1016/j.bja.2024.12.047 · Cited by 7
Performance on the antisaccade task predicts dropout from cognitive training
Arbiv, D. C., & Meiran, N. (2015) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.11.009 · Cited by 7
Maternal influences on binge eating behaviors in children
Barrie, D. L. L., Hardy, R. A., Clendinen, C., Jain, J., Bradley, B., Teer, A. P., Michopoulos, V., Vance, L. A., Hinrichs, R. C., Jovanović, T., et al. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113600 · Cited by 7

Authors: Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
University of Bern (CH)
Corresponding author: Jaeggi, Susanne M.
ORCID: Jaeggi, Susanne M.
Meier, Beat
Venue: Memory
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2010-04-19
Volume: 18
Issue: 4
Pages: 394-412
ISSN: 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
1464-0686
DOI: 10.1080/09658211003702171
OpenAlex: W2104281515
Semantic Scholar: 1cdd5a855d4ded37954d52981b618cd9a6576f96
Cited by: 981
References: 77
Citations by year: 2026: 85 · 2025: 92 · 2024: 112 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 48 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 24
FWCI: 28.44
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Memory (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: n-back task, working memory, concurrent validity, individual differences, reliability statistics, fluid intelligence, workload, psychometric properties
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Association Learning, Attention, Female, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Psychometrics, Reaction Time, Reading, Retention, Psychology, Serial Learning, Speech Perception, Verbal Learning, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult, Executive Function

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The concurrent validity of the N -back task as a working memory measure

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks