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The concurrent validity of the N -back task as a working memory measure
Abstract
The N-back task is used extensively in literature as a working memory (WM) paradigm and it is increasingly used as a measure of individual differences. However, not much is known about the psychometric properties of this task and the current study aims to shed more light on this issue. We first review the current literature on the psychometric properties of the N-back task. With three experiments using task variants with different stimuli and load levels, we then investigate the nature of the N-back task by investigating its relationship to WM, and its role as an inter-individual difference measure. Consistent with previous literature, our data suggest that the N-back task is not a useful measure of individual differences in WM, partly because of its insufficient reliability. Nevertheless, the task seems to be useful for experimental research in WM and also well predicts inter-individual differences in other higher cognitive functions, such as fluid intelligence, especially when used at higher levels of load.
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In the citing paper
“One of the most common tasks used in these WM training studies is the N-back, an updating task that correlates significantly with measures of higher-level cognition, such as Matrix Reasoning20–24.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“This holds true when the stimulus items are either from both the same (e.g., letters to digits) or different domain (e.g., spatial locations to digits) to the trained items (Li et al., 2008; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Anguera et al., 2012; Bürki et al., 2014; Waris et al., 2015; Küper and Karbach, 2016; Minear et al., 2016; Blacker et al., 2017).”
From Are Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific? (2019) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2010
In the citing paper
“In line with previous findings, there was evidence suggesting n-back training transfers to n-back tasks with new stimulus materials (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Anguera et al., 2012; Küper and Karbach, 2016; Minear et al., 2016; Soveri et al., 2017).”
From Are Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific? (2019) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2010
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“…n-back with simple short-term memory (Oberauer, 2005; Roberts & Gibson, 2002), or concluding that the complexity of n-back tasks requires a combination of processes not easily disentangled or characterized through comparison of performance on existing cognitive tests (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
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“Complexspan measures commonly have a relatively low correlation with performance in standard n-back and dual n-back tasks (see Jaeggi et al., 2010a, tive interference in an n-back task—as is the case for the gatekeeper task—did not increase its correlation with OSPAN.”
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“N ‑back task Concurrent to the PCT, we presented an auditory N -back task (adapted from Jaeggi et al., 2010a; see Fig.”
MethodMotivational rigidity enhances multitasking performance: The role of handling interruptions
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“Note that there were no significant differences in hypothalamic BOLD activity (t(28) = −0.”
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“, 2008, 2011), which have been repeatedly shown to measure a different construct from complex span tasks (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007; Redick and Lindsey, 2013), making it difficult to draw conclusions about transfer to complexWM.”
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How Does Allocation of Emotional Stimuli Impact Working Memory Tasks? An Overview
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“…were not interchangeable WM measures (Beatty et al., 2015; Blacker, Negoita, Ewen, & Courtney, 2017; Byrne, Gilbert, Kievit, & Holmes, 2019; Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007; Jaeggi et al., 2010), papers were grouped according to task to avoid biases related to the different WM processes.”
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“, 2-Back) have superior psychometric properties, presumably due to the ceiling effect that often occurs during the 1-Back condition (32).”
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“The limited research comparing the n-back with other putative working memory tasks is mixed (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007).”
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“Or an N-back task is no longer used to make statements about the N-back task, but as an indication of working memory capacity (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
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“…of correct trials rather than the number of true positive responses, thereby taking into account both hits and correct rejections, and (2) for the Letter N-back, we included performance on the 2-back task only because variability was higher as compared to 0-and 1-back (cf. Jaeggi et al., 2010 ).”
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“An N-back task is a useful tool for experimental research on working memory (Jaeggi et al., 2010), and it has been adopted to manipulate cognitive workload (Reimer et al., 2009; Ayaz et al., 2010; Yokota and Naruse, 2015).”
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“Although not specifically developed to isolate component processes of WM (see Jaeggi et al., 2010), the body of evidence that has developed through the use of the n-back task is impressive, not only in the sheer number of published studies but also in what it has revealed about brain regions and…”
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“It may then be concluded that the ability to solve insight problems shares about 30% of common variance with the ability to update the contents of WM, even if the influence of general mental ability is controlled for.”
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“The N-Back task is frequently utilized in applied cognitive neuroscience research due to its adaptability to the fMRI scanner environment, the ability to parametrically manipulate task demand by increasing the working memory load (increasing the “N”), and the surface validity of the relevant task-induced cognitive ope…”
Ralli, A. M., Chrysochoou, E., Ρούσσος, Π., Diakogiorgi, K., Dimitropoulou, P., & Filippatou, D. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11050604 · Cited by 30
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“The 3-back task (3BT) was used to assess the working memory (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
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“In response, the test participant is tasked with matching each number with the number which is presented in N-steps (i.e., from zero to two) before (Callicott et al., 1998), which has been shown to be useful in research inworkingmemory (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
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“performance reliably predicts Gf and measures of executive control [55, 72, 73, 87], and furthermore, it is highly predictive for academic achievement and teacherreported behavioral problems such as impulsivity and hyperactivity (e.”
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“The N-back tests were conducted with visuospatial stimuli [45,46], which consisted of light blue squares appearing at one of eight slotted positions around a central fixation cross on a black background (Figure 3).”
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“The response time and accuracy of each trial were recorded [23].”
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“Prior to MRI sessions, participants undergo a 2-back task (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Owen et al., 2005) as a baseline evaluation of working memory (Figure 8a).”
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“The 2-back task measured information integration performance (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007; Kirchner, 1958).”
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Watson, P., Gladwin, T. E., Verhoeven, A. A. C., & de Wit, S. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-022-01922-4 · Cited by 23
“N‐back task As a measure of working memory the N-back task was used, based on that of Jaeggi and colleagues (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
MethodTang, H., Lee, B. G., Towey, D., & Pike, M. (2024) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s24092835 · Cited by 21
“The N-back task [35] was the secondary task, which required the participants to speak out the number that previously appeared n items ago in the task.”
BackgroundRostami, M., Razeghi, M., Daneshmandi, H., Hassanzadeh, J., & Choobineh, A. (2020) · International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/10803548.2020.1806565 · Cited by 20
Multiple positive outcomes of a later school starting time for adolescents
de Araújo, L. B. G., Bianchin, S., Pedrazzoli, M., Louzada, F. M., & Beijamini, F. (2022) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2022.04.002 · Cited by 19
Influence of cognitive processes on driver decision-making in dilemma zone
Kaul, R., & Jipp, M. (2023) · Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.trip.2023.100805 · Cited by 21
Asefirad, A., & Wippert, P. (2024) · Frontiers in Pain Research · doi:10.3389/fpain.2024.1266974 · Cited by 22
Suhr, J. A., & Wei, C. C. (2013) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2013.32.7.753 · Cited by 22
Lee, H.-Y., & Yang, E.-L. (2018) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294118755674 · Cited by 24
“Jaeggi et al. (2010) showed that the N-back task is highly related to the memory span subtest, meaning that the N-back task measure and working memory evaluated on the memory span subtest are the same construct.”
MethodInvestigating the other‐race effect in working memory
Stelter, M., & Degner, J. (2018) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12304 · Cited by 22
A cross-sectional analysis on the effects of age on dual tasking in typically developing children
Saxena, S., Majnemer, A., Li, K., Beauchamp, M. H., & Gagnon, I. J. (2018) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-018-1126-0 · Cited by 21
Nagle, A., Riener, R., & Wolf, P. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01774 · Cited by 21
“The four standardized tests were analyzed by considering the difference in the post-and pre-test scores.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialIdowu, M. I., Szameitat, A. J., & Parton, A. D. (2024) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2024.1334309 · Cited by 25
Goodhew, S. C., & Edwards, M. (2024) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-024-02573-6 · Cited by 22
“Although there have been some questions about its relationship with other measures of working memory (e.g., Jaeggi et al., 2010; Redick & Lindsey, 2013), it has been suggested to capture working memory function and to detect subtle changes in cognitive function that other tasks were not able to…”
Amiri, S., Hassani‐Abharian, P., Vaseghi, S., Kazemi, R., & Nasehi, M. M. (2021) · Assistive Technology · doi:10.1080/10400435.2021.1934608 · Cited by 19
“The validity and psychometric properties of this test were evaluated in previous research (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
MethodSong, T., Yu, K., Wang, L., Xu, L., Xu, M., Peng, Z., Dai, C., Wang, H., Yang, T., Shao, Y., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.736437 · Cited by 22
“It can successfully predict individual differences in higher cognitive functions such as fluid intelligence, especially when the levels of loads in the task are higher (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
BackgroundWorking memory training shows immediate and long-term effects on cognitive performance in children
Pugin, F., Metz, A. J., Stauffer, M., Wolf, M., Jenni, O. G., & Huber, R. (2014) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.3665.2 · Cited by 20
Age-differences in the temporal properties of proactive interference in working memory.
Samrani, G., Bäckman, L., & Persson, J. (2017) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000204 · Cited by 20
“Furthermore, N-back is useful for experimental WM research by accounting for interindividual differences in higher cognitive functions (Jaeggi et al., 2010), such as interference resolution.”
MethodWord Retrieval Difficulties and Cognitive Control in Specific Language Impairment
Ladányi, E., & Lukács, Á. (2019) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2018_jslhr-l-17-0446 · Cited by 19
No evidence of the effect of cognitive load on self-paced cycling performance
Holgado, D., Zabala, M., & Sanabria, D. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0217825 · Cited by 19
Physical Exercise Intensity During Submersion Selectively Affects Executive Functions
Möller, F. N., Hoffmann, U., Dalecki, M., Dräger, T., Doppelmayr, M. M., & Steinberg, F. (2019) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720819879313 · Cited by 18
MacKenzie, M. J., Zuniga, K. E., Raine, L. B., Salerno, E. A., Hillman, C. H., Kramer, A. F., & McAuley, E. (2015) · Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.1089/jwh.2015.5246 · Cited by 19
“Specifically, the increasing cognitive load of working memory maintenance and manipulation in higher n-back tasks is thought to reflect greater reallocation of attention and processing capacity to meet these increasing demands.(42,43) In each condition, participants were instructed to respond as quickly and accurately…”
P300, Gray Matter Volume and Individual Characteristics Correlates in Healthy Elderly
Pergher, V., Tournoy, J., Schoenmakers, B., & Hulle, M. M. V. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00104 · Cited by 18
“For all participants the procedure consisted of simultaneous EEG recording during a WM task performance, called N-Back task (Jaeggi et al., 2010), and for 16 subjects between 65 and 76 years old, also an anatomical MR scan.”
MethodGan, T., Nikolin, S., Loo, C. K. A., & Martin, D. M. (2019) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617719000766 · Cited by 17
Sabhlok, A., Malanchini, M., Engelhardt, L. E., Madole, J. W., Tucker–Drob, E. M., & Harden, K. P. (2021) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13168 · Cited by 21
Measuring Cognitive Load: Heart-rate Variability and Pupillometry Assessment
Anguiozar, N. U., & St-Onge, D. (2020) · Companion Publication of the International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (ICMI Companion) · doi:10.1145/3395035.3425203 · Cited by 18
“The n selected was 3, meaning that the participant needs to check if the number currently indicated was repeated 3 mentions before [13].”
BackgroundSmog and cognitive issues in the school going children of Lahore and Islamabad, Pakistan
Naveed, Z., & Khayyam, U. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s13762-022-04264-y · Cited by 17
Zhang, H., Meng, C., Di, X., Wu, X., & Biswal, B. B. (2023) · Network Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/netn_a_00314 · Cited by 19
“The N-back task involves complex cognitive processes (Jaeggi et al., 2010), which can provide different level of cognitive challenges (Shine & Poldrack, 2018) or cognitive load states (Zuo et al., 2018).”
BackgroundFluid reasoning skills at the high school transition predict subsequent dropout
Pagani, L. S., Brière, F. N., & Janosz, M. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.02.006 · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- University of Bern (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Jaeggi, Susanne M.
- Venue
- Memory
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-04-19
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 394-412
- ISSN
- 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0686
- OpenAlex
- W2104281515
- Semantic Scholar
- 1cdd5a855d4ded37954d52981b618cd9a6576f96
- Cited by
- 981
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 85 · 2025: 92 · 2024: 112 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 48 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 28.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, concurrent validity, individual differences, reliability statistics, fluid intelligence, workload, psychometric properties
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Association Learning, Attention, Female, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Psychometrics, Reaction Time, Reading, Retention, Psychology, Serial Learning, Speech Perception, Verbal Learning, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult, Executive Function
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