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The concurrent validity of the N -back task as a working memory measure
Abstract
The N-back task is used extensively in literature as a working memory (WM) paradigm and it is increasingly used as a measure of individual differences. However, not much is known about the psychometric properties of this task and the current study aims to shed more light on this issue. We first review the current literature on the psychometric properties of the N-back task. With three experiments using task variants with different stimuli and load levels, we then investigate the nature of the N-back task by investigating its relationship to WM, and its role as an inter-individual difference measure. Consistent with previous literature, our data suggest that the N-back task is not a useful measure of individual differences in WM, partly because of its insufficient reliability. Nevertheless, the task seems to be useful for experimental research in WM and also well predicts inter-individual differences in other higher cognitive functions, such as fluid intelligence, especially when used at higher levels of load.
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In the citing paper
“One of the most common tasks used in these WM training studies is the N-back, an updating task that correlates significantly with measures of higher-level cognition, such as Matrix Reasoning20–24.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“This holds true when the stimulus items are either from both the same (e.g., letters to digits) or different domain (e.g., spatial locations to digits) to the trained items (Li et al., 2008; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Anguera et al., 2012; Bürki et al., 2014; Waris et al., 2015; Küper and Karbach, 2016; Minear et al., 2016; Blacker et al., 2017).”
From Are Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific? (2019) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2010
In the citing paper
“In line with previous findings, there was evidence suggesting n-back training transfers to n-back tasks with new stimulus materials (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Anguera et al., 2012; Küper and Karbach, 2016; Minear et al., 2016; Soveri et al., 2017).”
From Are Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific? (2019) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2010
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“Second, although it extensively utilized as a WM paradigm, the N-back is thought not to represent an ideal measure of inter-individual differences in working memory (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
Torregrossa, J., Ανδρέου, Μ., Bongartz, C., & Tsimpli, I. M. (2021) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728920000826 · Cited by 61
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“Similarly, several studies have reported aftereffects of anodal tDCS applied to the left DLPFC on working memory assessed with n-back tasks (Hoy et al., 2013; Keeser et al., 2011; Mulquiney, Hoy, Daskalakis, & Fitzgerald, 2011; Ohn et al., 2008).”
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Mohammed, A., Kosonogov, V., & Lyusin, D. (2021) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12804 · Cited by 65
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Zhang, L., Shao, Y., Liu, Z., Li, C., Chen, Y., & Zhou, Q. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00408 · Cited by 57
“The n-back task is based on the reciprocal n-test paradigm and is one of the most commonly used cognitive experiments on WM (Owen et al., 2005; Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
MethodBasic and complex cognitive functions in Adult ADHD
Mohamed, S. M. H., Butzbach, M., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Weisbrod, M., Aschenbrenner, S., Tucha, L., & Tucha, O. M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256228 · Cited by 63
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“Second, the general WM factor could encompass fluid intelligence that is related to WM (Conway et al., 2002; Jaeggi et al., 2010b; Shelton et al., 2010).”
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“Experimental memory task Digit Span (WAIS) [100] Int X – – X X”
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“Third , the n - back task has been widely used in the neuroimaging literature but it is not a standardized psychometric test of WM ( Jaeggi et al .”
MethodKim, N. Y., Wittenberg, E., & Nam, C. S. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00378 · Cited by 59
“In single task conditions, increased updating demands in high n-back levels result in increased RTs and decreased accuracy as compared to low n-back levels (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
BackgroundEstrogens, Aging, and Working Memory
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“We used the n-back paradigm to assess working memory [12].”
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Cognitive load selectively influences the interruptive effect of pain on attention
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“The decreased metabolism in the frontal lobe was related to change in performance measured by the N-back task, which reflects working memory (Jaeggi et al. 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRac-Lubashevsky, R., & Frank, M. J. (2021) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008971 · Cited by 46
Doherty, K. A., & Desjardins, J. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00721 · Cited by 50
Human Performance Optimization Metrics
Nindl, B. C., Jaffin, D. P., Dretsch, M. N., Cheuvront, S. N., Wesensten, N. J., Kent, M. L., Grunberg, N. E., Pierce, J. R., Barry, E. S., Scott, J. M., et al. (2015) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000001114 · Cited by 53
“Short-term/Working Memory N-Back (92,93) High Moderate F, L R, C C Low P Many versions Software needed Digit Span (56,148,171) High Moderate to high F, C, L R, C C, P Low P Easy to administer Poor sensitivity”
Backgroundvan Dijk, D. M., van Rhenen, W., Murre, J. M. J., & Verwijk, E. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0231906 · Cited by 60
“Although not suitable for measuring individual differences, due to its low reliability, the n-back test has proven to be useful for experimental research [55].”
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Lally, N., Nord, C. L., Walsh, V., & Roiser, J. P. (2013) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.2-219.v2 · Cited by 56
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“We are currently analysing the data from each of the remaining fMRI tasks as this will allow each cognitive domain and its neural correlates to be the focus of the specific analysis.”
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“We conducted two experimental studies and assessed people ’ s performance and subjective experience (i.e., positive affect, motivational conflict, and subjective experience of effort) in a gamified vs. non-gamified n-back task (Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Perrig, & Meier, 2010).”
MethodHeinzel, S., Rimpel, J., Stelzel, C., & Rapp, M. A. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00085 · Cited by 45
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“…online via https://www.psytoolkit.org/ (Stoet, 2010, 2017), has been used and validated in previous cognitive research in psychology and neuroscience fields and has been found to be an appropriate instrument for measuring WM (see Conway et al., 2005; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007).”
MethodTowards Intelligent Data Analytics: A Case Study in Driver Cognitive Load Classification
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“The n-back task is a continuous performance task commonly used as an assessment of working memory load [12,13].”
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“∗ ∗ ∗ P 0.001; ∗ ∗ P 0.01; ∗ P 0.05. presented stimulus matches the one n steps earlier in the sequence (Jaeggi et al. 2010).”
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“Also, it should be noted that the reaction times were overall quite long when compared to regular n-back tasks (Jaeggi et al., 2010), especially for the low working memory load condition.”
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“Beside the face validity of all tasks, the n-back task showed moderate correlations with other indices of WM (Jaeggi et al., 2010), and fNIRS was shown to be highly correlated with other imaging techniques (Huppert, Hoge, Diamond, Franceschini, & Boas, 2006; Rovati, Salvatori, Bulf, & Fonda, 2007).”
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“However, N-back tasks are not highly correlated with other working 523 memory tasks [97–99] and often have relatively poor statistical reliability [95], potentially 524 making it difficult to detect effects across treatment conditions.”
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Working memory training remains a work in progress.
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Increased integrity of white matter pathways after dual n-back training
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“Since the two tasks are independent of each other, the dual n-back is demanding to the cognitive system by including a dual-task component in addition to its WM demands (Jaeggi et al., 2010a; Jaeggi et al., 2003; Strobach et al., 2014).”
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“A survey of the literature on the relationship between WM and language processing shows that the two most common measures of WM span are the sentence span task and the n-back task (e.g. Boyle et al., 2013; Conway et al., 2005; Daneman & Carpenter, 1980; Dede et al., 2004; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kim & Christianson, 2013;…”
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Self-citationOn the relation of working memory and multitasking: Memory span and synthetic work performance.
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“Often-replicated fronto-parietal network activations are wellestablished fMRI correlates of visual WM [21,22,23].”
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“In support of this hypothesis, training programmes that exclusively focused on WM in non-schizophrenia populations have been associated with a transfer of benefits to other cognitive functions, including attention, problem-solving and fluid intelligence (Jaeggi et al. 2008; Jaeggi et al. 2010; Lilienthal et al. 2013;…”
BackgroundZainal, N. H., & Newman, M. G. (2021) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.2217 · Cited by 36
The effects of experimental pain and induced optimism on working memory task performance
Boselie, J. J. L. M., Vancleef, L. M. G., & Peters, M. L. (2016) · Scandinavian Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.sjpain.2016.03.001 · Cited by 36
Selective transfer of visual working memory training on Chinese character learning
Opitz, B., Schneiders, J. A., Krick, C. M., & Mecklinger, A. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.10.017 · Cited by 33
Hesse, K., Schroeder, P. A., Scheeff, J., Klingberg, S., & Plewnia, C. (2016) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.11.006 · Cited by 32
Román, F. J., Iturria‐Medina, Y., Martínez, K., Karama, S., Burgaleta, M., Evans, A. C., Jaeggi, S. M., & Colom, R. (2017) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2017.03.010 · Cited by 33
“Coping with the nback task requires these cognitive processes (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationN-Back Related ERPs Depend on Stimulus Type, Task Structure, Pre-processing, and Lab Factors
Shalchy, M. A., Pergher, V., Pahor, A., Hulle, M. M. V., & Seitz, A. R. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.549966 · Cited by 33
Impact of mask use on face recognition: an eye-tracking study
Hsiao, J. H., Liao, W., & Tso, R. V.-Y. (2022) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-022-00382-w · Cited by 32
“Two-back tasks were used to assess participants’ working memory ability, i.e., to encode, maintain and update incoming information (Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
MethodShan, Y., Jia, Y., Zhong, S., Li, X., Zhao, H., Chen, J., Lu, Q., Zhang, L., Li, Z., Lai, S., et al. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.10.030 · Cited by 32
“Previous studies also suggested that the decreased metabolism in the frontal lobe was related to change in WM performance (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2013).”
BackgroundA 4-week endurance training program improves tolerance to mental exertion in untrained individuals
Filipas, L., Martin, K., Northey, J. M., Torre, A. L., Keegan, R. J., & Rattray, B. (2020) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2020.04.020 · Cited by 35
Nejati, V. (2021) · Complementary Therapies in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2021.102759 · Cited by 33
Chenot, Q., Lepron, E., Boissezon, X. D., & Scannella, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroergonomics · doi:10.3389/fnrgo.2021.718176 · Cited by 38
“Indeed, tasks such as SF are more complex and engaging than conventional laboratory tasks such as the nback (Jaeggi et al., 2010), the Stroop (Vendrell et al., 1995), or the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (Anderson et al., 1991), with the additional benefit of being more convenient to study than…”
BackgroundMethodCognitive performance of military men and women during prolonged load carriage
Armstrong, N. C. D., Smith, S. J., Risius, D., Doyle, D. P., Wardle, S. L., Greeves, J. P., House, J. R., Tipton, M., & Lomax, M. (2022) · BMJ Military Health · doi:10.1136/bmjmilitary-2021-002000 · Cited by 31
Effects of exergames on mood and cognition in healthy older adults: A randomized pilot study
Moret, B., Nucci, M., & Campana, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1018601 · Cited by 31
“N-back Test, specifically 2-back and 3-back working memory tasks using letters (Postle et al., 2000; Jaeggi et al., 2010); temporary storage of the material and manipulation of the information are involved; Spatial Recall Test (SPART) (Rao, 1990) assesses visual memory acquisition through a 6 × 6 checkerboard with 10…”
MethodThe composite complex span: French validation of a short working memory task
Gonthier, C., Thomassin, N., & Roulin, J. (2015) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0566-3 · Cited by 33
Gray matter responsiveness to adaptive working memory training: a surface-based morphometry study
Román, F. J., Lewis, L. B., Chen, C., Karama, S., Burgaleta, M., Martínez, K., Lepage, C., Jaeggi, S. M., Evans, A. C., Kremen, W. S., et al. (2015) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-015-1168-7 · Cited by 34
“These abilities and skills are thought to contribute to n-back performance (Jaeggi et al. 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSleep augments training-induced improvement in working memory in children and adults
Zinke, K., Noack, H., & Jan Born, A. (2017) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2017.11.009 · Cited by 33
Disparate roads to certainty processing strategy choices under need for closure
Kossowska, M., Szumowska, E., Dragon, P., Jaśko, K., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2018) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2018.1493066 · Cited by 31
Object-based attention in complex, naturalistic auditory streams
Marinato, G., & Baldauf, D. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-39166-6 · Cited by 30
The effect of visual stimuli noise and fatigue on steady-state visual evoked potentials
Zhang, S., & Gao, X. (2019) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab1f4e · Cited by 30
“An N-back working memory task was used in the study to induce and assess the fatigue state of subjects (Jaeggi et al 2010, Soveri et al 2017).”
MethodCohen, K., Mama, Y., Rosca, P., Pinhasov, A., & Weinstein, A. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00602 · Cited by 30
“The two conditions of the n-back represent measures of WM at low and high load (72), in our previous work we have demonstrated WM deficits in SC users, in both 1-back and 2back conditions (60).”
MethodReichert, C., Maire, M., Gabel, V., Viola, A., Kolodyazhniy, V., Strobel, W. M., Götz, T., Bachmann, V., Landolt, H., Cajochen, C., et al. (2014) · Journal of Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1177/0748730414524898 · Cited by 33
“The n-back task was originally designed to study working memory performance, even though its construct validity as pure working memory measure has been criticized (Kane et al., 2007; Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
BackgroundGambarota, F., & Sessa, P. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02392 · Cited by 29
“Although other VWM-related paradigms have also been more or less successfully employed, (e.g., the n-back task; Jaeggi et al., 2010), the CDT is the most widely used and is considered the most versatile paradigm for the study of VWM (Luck and Vogel, 2013).”
Ashtiani, S. N. M., & Daliri, M. R. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43837-w · Cited by 37
Exploring the effectiveness of commercial and custom-built games for cognitive training
Smith, S. P., Stibric, M., & Smithson, D. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.05.014 · Cited by 30
Predicting Secondary Task Performance: A Directly Actionable Metric for Cognitive Overload Detection
Amadori, P. V., Fischer, T., Wang, R., & Demiris, Y. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems · doi:10.1109/tcds.2021.3114162 · Cited by 30
“…allows to easily to modulate different levels of cognitive load by increasing/decreasing the “n,” and it also has been shown to be an effective tool to predict individual fluid intelligence and higher cognitive functions, especially when used to induce higher levels of load, such as 3-back [53].”
MethodPhysical activity intervention promotes working memory and motor competence in preschool children
Zhang, J., Shen, Q.-Q., Wang, D.-L., Hou, J.-M., Xia, T., Qiu, S., Wang, X., Zhou, S.-B., Yang, W.-W., Heng, S.-Y., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.984887 · Cited by 39
Metadata
- Authors
- Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- University of Bern (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Jaeggi, Susanne M.
- Venue
- Memory
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-04-19
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 394-412
- ISSN
- 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0686
- OpenAlex
- W2104281515
- Semantic Scholar
- 1cdd5a855d4ded37954d52981b618cd9a6576f96
- Cited by
- 981
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 85 · 2025: 92 · 2024: 112 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 48 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 28.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, concurrent validity, individual differences, reliability statistics, fluid intelligence, workload, psychometric properties
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Association Learning, Attention, Female, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Psychometrics, Reaction Time, Reading, Retention, Psychology, Serial Learning, Speech Perception, Verbal Learning, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult, Executive Function
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