The DOI matches its Crossref record; 79 of the 79 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The concurrent validity of the N -back task as a working memory measure
Abstract
The N-back task is used extensively in literature as a working memory (WM) paradigm and it is increasingly used as a measure of individual differences. However, not much is known about the psychometric properties of this task and the current study aims to shed more light on this issue. We first review the current literature on the psychometric properties of the N-back task. With three experiments using task variants with different stimuli and load levels, we then investigate the nature of the N-back task by investigating its relationship to WM, and its role as an inter-individual difference measure. Consistent with previous literature, our data suggest that the N-back task is not a useful measure of individual differences in WM, partly because of its insufficient reliability. Nevertheless, the task seems to be useful for experimental research in WM and also well predicts inter-individual differences in other higher cognitive functions, such as fluid intelligence, especially when used at higher levels of load.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“One of the most common tasks used in these WM training studies is the N-back, an updating task that correlates significantly with measures of higher-level cognition, such as Matrix Reasoning20–24.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“This holds true when the stimulus items are either from both the same (e.g., letters to digits) or different domain (e.g., spatial locations to digits) to the trained items (Li et al., 2008; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Anguera et al., 2012; Bürki et al., 2014; Waris et al., 2015; Küper and Karbach, 2016; Minear et al., 2016; Blacker et al., 2017).”
From Are Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific? (2019) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2010
In the citing paper
“In line with previous findings, there was evidence suggesting n-back training transfers to n-back tasks with new stimulus materials (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Anguera et al., 2012; Küper and Karbach, 2016; Minear et al., 2016; Soveri et al., 2017).”
From Are Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific? (2019) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2010
Citations
Cites
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779
Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.122 · Cited by 4,153
Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies
Carroll, J. B. (1993) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511571312 · Cited by 4,121
N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies.
Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20131 · Cited by 3,560
Human cognitive abilities a survey of factor-analytic studies
Carroll, J. B. (2004) · Cited by 3,395
Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia.
Snodgrass, J. G., & Corwin, J. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.117.1.34 · Cited by 3,093
Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.
Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. A. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309 · Cited by 3,078
Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196772 · Cited by 2,882
Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia.
Snodgrass, J. G., & Corwin, J. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.117.1.34 · Cited by 2,527
Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2002) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196323 · Cited by 2,229
Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0801268105 · Cited by 2,187
Self-citationNeuroimaging studies of working memory:
Wager, T. D., & Smith, E. E. (2003) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.3.4.255 · Cited by 1,889
Reasoning ability is (little more than) working-memory capacity?!
Kyllonen, P. C., & Christal, R. E. (1990) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(05)80012-1 · Cited by 1,810
Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information.
Kirchner, W. K. (1958) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0043688 · Cited by 1,798
Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.189 · Cited by 1,679
Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin.
Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., DeFries, J. C., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.137.2.201 · Cited by 1,547
Deficits on subject-ordered tasks after frontal- and temporal-lobe lesions in man
Petrides, M., & Milner, B. A. (1982) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(82)90100-2 · Cited by 1,317
Not All Executive Functions Are Related to Intelligence
Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Corley, R. P., Young, S. E., DeFries, J. C., & Hewitt, J. K. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01681.x · Cited by 1,293
Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005 · Cited by 1,223
On the capacity of attention: Its estimation and its role in working memory and cognitive aptitudes
Cowan, N., Elliott, E. M., Scott Saults, J., Morey, C. C., Mattox, S., Hismjatullina, A., & Conway, A. R. A. (2005) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2004.12.001 · Cited by 1,144
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Rettinger, D. A., Shah, P., & Hegarty, M. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.621 · Cited by 1,139
Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence
Gray, J. R., Chabris, C. F., & Braver, T. S. (2003) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1014 · Cited by 1,080
Executive Functioning as a Potential Mediator of Age-Related Cognitive Decline in Normal Adults.
Salthouse, T. A., Atkinson, T. M., & Berish, D. E. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.4.566 · Cited by 1,057
Working Memory: A View from Neuroimaging
Smith, E. E., & Jonides, J. (1997) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1997.0658 · Cited by 1,046
A Neural Basis for General Intelligence
Duncan, J., Seitz, R. J., Kolodny, J., Bor, D., Herzog, H. R., Ahmed, A., Newell, F. N., & Emslie, H. C. (2000) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.289.5478.457 · Cited by 1,043
Working Memory and Intelligence: The Same or Different Constructs?
Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.30 · Cited by 969 · cited 1×
“This is an important research question, since there is widespread evidence that WM shares considerable variance with measures of fluid intelligence ( Gf ) (Ackerman, Beier, & Boyle, 2005; Kane, Hambrick, & Conway, 2005; Kyllonen & Christal, 1990; Oberauer, Schulze, Wilhelm, & Suss, 2005).”
BackgroundWorking memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity
Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R. A., Miura, T. K., & Colflesh, G. J. H. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.615 · Cited by 933 · cited 15×
“…using a single WM capacity measure such as a reading span task (RST) or an operation span task report rather weak intercorrelations (ranging between r (cid:2) .10 and r (cid:2) .24; Colom, Abad, Quiroga, Shih, & Flores-Mendoza, 2008; Kane et al., 2007; Oberauer, 2005; Roberts & Gibson, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNeuroimaging analyses of human working memory
Smith, E. E., & Jonides, J. (1998) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.95.20.12061 · Cited by 806
Reassessing working memory: Comment on Just and Carpenter (1992) and Waters and Caplan (1996).
MacDonald, M. C., & Christiansen, M. H. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.1.35 · Cited by 784
Verbal Working Memory Load Affects Regional Brain Activation as Measured by PET
Jonides, J., Schumacher, E. H., Smith, E. E., Lauber, E. J., Awh, E., Minoshima, S., & Koeppe, R. A. (1997) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1997.9.4.462 · Cited by 715
Awh, E., Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., Schumacher, E. H., Koeppe, R. A., & Katz, S. (1996) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00662.x · Cited by 705
Advanced progressive matrices : sets I and II
Raven, J. (1962) · H. K. Lewis eBooks · Cited by 643
Working-memory capacity explains reasoning ability—and a little bit more
Süß, H., Oberauer, K., Wittmann, W. W., Wilhelm, O., & Schulze, R. (2002) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(01)00100-3 · Cited by 638
Gevins, A. S. (2000) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/10.9.829 · Cited by 600
Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., & Conway, A. R. A. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.66 · Cited by 545
Adult age differences in working memory
Dobbs, A. R., & Rule, B. G. (1989) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.4.4.500 · Cited by 466
Shamosh, N. A., DeYoung, C. G., Green, A. E., Reis, D. L., Johnson, M. R., Conway, A. R. A., Engle, R. W., Braver, T. S., & Gray, J. R. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02175.x · Cited by 452
Working memory and focal attention.
McElree, B. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.3.817 · Cited by 430
Binding and Inhibition in Working Memory: Individual and Age Differences in Short-Term Recognition.
Oberauer, K. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.3.368 · Cited by 420
Oberauer, K., Schulze, R., Wilhelm, O., & Süß, H.-M. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.61 · Cited by 410
Adult age differences in working memory.
Dobbs, A. R., & Rule, B. G. (1989) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.4.4.500 · Cited by 389
Nystrom, L. E., Braver, T. S., Sabb, F. W., Delgado, M. R., Noll, D. C., & Cohen, J. D. (2000) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0572 · Cited by 380
Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?
Colom, R., Abad, F. J., Quiroga, M. Á., Shih, P. C., & Flores-Mendoza, C. E. (2008) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002 · Cited by 340
Individual differences in working memory
Jarrold, C., & Towse, J. N. (2005) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.07.002 · Cited by 336
Working memory for complex figures: An fMRI comparison of letter and fractal n-back tasks
Ragland, J. D., Turetsky, B. I., Gur, R. C., Gunning-Dixon, F., Turner, T., Schroeder, L., Chan, R., & Gur, R. E. (2002) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.16.3.370 · Cited by 327
PET Evidence for an Amodal Verbal Working Memory System
Schumacher, E. H., Lauber, E. J., Awh, E., Jonides, J. J., Smith, E. E., & Koeppe, R. A. (1996) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.1996.0009 · Cited by 262
Effect of age on forward and backward digit spans
Grégoire, J. C., & der Linden, M. V. (1997) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825589708256642 · Cited by 258
5.4 Hamburg-Wechsler Intelligenztest für Erwachsene, Revision 1991 (Tewes, 1994)
(2001) · Thieme eBooks · doi:10.1055/b-0034-5328 · Cited by 251
Verhaeghen, P., & Basak, C. (2004) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/02724980443000241 · Cited by 232
Measurement of Executive Function: Considerations for Detecting Adult Age Differences
Bryan, J., & Luszcz, M. A. (2000) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/1380-3395(200002)22:1;1-8;ft040 · Cited by 218
Stuss, D. T., ALEXANDER, M. P., Floden, D. P., Binns, M. A., Levine, B., McIntosh, A. R., Rajah, N., & Hevenor, S. J. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195134971.003.0025 · Cited by 205
Comparison of four scoring methods for the reading span test
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2005) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/bf03192728 · Cited by 172
Contextual analysis of fluid intelligence
Salthouse, T. A., Pink, J. E., & Tucker–Drob, E. M. (2007) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.10.003 · Cited by 166
Daigneault, S., & Braun, C. M. J. (1993) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/01688639308402605 · Cited by 161
On how high performers keep cool brains in situations of cognitive overload
JAEGGI, S. M., BUSCHKUEHL, M., ETIENNE, A., OZDOBA, C., PERRIG, W. J., & NIRKKO, A. C. (2007) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.7.2.75 · Cited by 159
Self-citationShelton, J. T., Elliott, E. M., Hill, B. D., Calamia, M. R., & Gouvier, W. D. (2008) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.11.005 · Cited by 155
Developmental neural networks in children performing a Categorical N-Back Task
Ciesielski, K. T. R., Lesnik, P. G., Savoy, R. L., Grant, P. E., & Ahlfors, S. P. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.07.028 · Cited by 152
A rapid fMRI task battery for mapping of visual, motor, cognitive, and emotional function
Drobyshevsky, A., Baumann, S. B., & Schneider, W. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.12.016 · Cited by 126
Verhaeghen, P., Cerella, J., & Basak, C. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.6.1322 · Cited by 124
The concurrent validity and test?retest reliability of a visuospatial working memory task
HOCKEY, A., & GEFFEN, G. (2004) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.07.009 · Cited by 115
Working memory capacity and resistance to interference
Oberauer, K., Lange, E. B., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2004.03.003 · Cited by 97
Effects of prolonged mental work on functional brain topography
Gevins, A. S., Bressler, S. L., Cutillo, B. A., Illes, J., Miller, J. C., Stern, J. A., & Jex, H. R. (1990) · Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/0013-4694(90)90035-i · Cited by 96
Paced memorizing in a continuous task
Mackworth, J. F. (1959) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0049090 · Cited by 90
Measuring Central Executive Functioning: What's in a Reading Span?
Whitney, P. J., Arnett, P. A., Driver, A. C., & Budd, D. (2001) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1006/brcg.2000.1243 · Cited by 83
Individual Differences in Sentence Memory
Roberts, R., & Gibson, E. A. F. (2002) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1023/a:1021213004302 · Cited by 81
Meier, B., & Perrig, W. J. (2000) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/713755878 · Cited by 61
Self-citationIngredients of complexity in fluid intelligence
Stankov, L., & Crawford, J. D. (1993) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/1041-6080(93)90007-f · Cited by 58
A special role for numbers in working memory? An fMRI study
Knops, A., Nuerk, H., Fimm, B., Vohn, R., & Willmes, K. (2005) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.009 · Cited by 52
Dissociation between overt and unconscious face processing in fusiform face area
Lehmann, C. U., Mueller, T., Federspiel, A., Hubl, D., Schroth, G., Huber, O., Strik, W. K., & Dierks, T. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.08.038 · Cited by 51
A group-administered lag task as a measure of working memory
Shelton, J. T., Metzger, R. L., & Elliott, E. M. (2007) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/bf03193017 · Cited by 45
Competing tasks as an index of intelligence
Fogarty, G. J., & Stankov, L. (1982) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(82)90006-x · Cited by 44
Bryan, J., & Luszcz, M. A. (2001) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/jcen.23.5.608.1250 · Cited by 40
Endophenotypes for intelligence in children and adolescents
van Leeuwen, M., van den Berg, S. M., Hoekstra, R. A., & Boomsma, D. I. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.008 · Cited by 37
Differential Age Effects in Load-Dependent Memory Processing
Jaeggi, S. M., Schmid, C. W., Buschkuehl, M., & Perrig, W. J. (2008) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580802233426 · Cited by 36
Self-citationWaiter, G. D., Deary, I. J., Staff, R. T., Murray, A. D., Fox, H. C., Starr, J. M., & Whalley, L. J. (2008) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.09.008 · Cited by 35
Complexity as a reflection of the dimensionality of a task
Spilsbury, G. (1992) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90024-l · Cited by 25
Full Frontal Fluidity?: Looking in on the Neuroimaging of Reasoning and Intelligence
Kane, M. J. (2005) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452233529.n9 · Cited by 17
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Tewes , U. 1991 . Hamburg-Wechsler-Intelligenztest für Erwachsene-Revision 1991 (HAWIE-R) , Bern : Hans Huber .
- Wechsler , D. 1981 . WAIS-R Manual , New York : The Psychological Corporation .
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Do “brain-training” programs work?
Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2016) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100616661983 · Cited by 1,183
Is working memory training effective?
Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0027473 · Cited by 1,101
Green spaces and cognitive development in primary schoolchildren
Dadvand, P., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Esnaola, M., Forns, J., Basagaña, X., Alvarez-Pedrerol, M., Rivas, I., López-Vicente, M., De Castro Pascual, M., Su, J., et al. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1503402112 · Cited by 942
Anxiety and working memory capacity: A meta-analysis and narrative review.
Moran, T. P. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000051 · Cited by 776
Redick, T. S., Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Fried, D. E., Hambrick, D. Z., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0029082 · Cited by 617
Metadata
- Authors
- Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- University of Bern (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Jaeggi, Susanne M.
- Venue
- Memory
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-04-19
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 394-412
- ISSN
- 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0686
- OpenAlex
- W2104281515
- Semantic Scholar
- 1cdd5a855d4ded37954d52981b618cd9a6576f96
- Cited by
- 981
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 85 · 2025: 92 · 2024: 112 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 48 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 28.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, concurrent validity, individual differences, reliability statistics, fluid intelligence, workload, psychometric properties
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Association Learning, Attention, Female, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Psychometrics, Reaction Time, Reading, Retention, Psychology, Serial Learning, Speech Perception, Verbal Learning, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult, Executive Function
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
