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The concurrent validity of the N -back task as a working memory measure
Abstract
The N-back task is used extensively in literature as a working memory (WM) paradigm and it is increasingly used as a measure of individual differences. However, not much is known about the psychometric properties of this task and the current study aims to shed more light on this issue. We first review the current literature on the psychometric properties of the N-back task. With three experiments using task variants with different stimuli and load levels, we then investigate the nature of the N-back task by investigating its relationship to WM, and its role as an inter-individual difference measure. Consistent with previous literature, our data suggest that the N-back task is not a useful measure of individual differences in WM, partly because of its insufficient reliability. Nevertheless, the task seems to be useful for experimental research in WM and also well predicts inter-individual differences in other higher cognitive functions, such as fluid intelligence, especially when used at higher levels of load.
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In the citing paper
“One of the most common tasks used in these WM training studies is the N-back, an updating task that correlates significantly with measures of higher-level cognition, such as Matrix Reasoning20–24.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“This holds true when the stimulus items are either from both the same (e.g., letters to digits) or different domain (e.g., spatial locations to digits) to the trained items (Li et al., 2008; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Anguera et al., 2012; Bürki et al., 2014; Waris et al., 2015; Küper and Karbach, 2016; Minear et al., 2016; Blacker et al., 2017).”
From Are Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific? (2019) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2010
In the citing paper
“In line with previous findings, there was evidence suggesting n-back training transfers to n-back tasks with new stimulus materials (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Anguera et al., 2012; Küper and Karbach, 2016; Minear et al., 2016; Soveri et al., 2017).”
From Are Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific? (2019) · cites this paper as Jaeggi et al., 2010
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“N-Back test, which mainly evaluates the working memory as well as sustained attention, was administrated to evaluate working memory and inhibitory control of irrelevant information (Jonides et al., 1997; Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
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“The n-back task is considered a common method to assess working memory (Owen et al., 2005; Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
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“For example, N-Back accuracy has exhibited only modest associations with digit span as a measure of WM (Kane et al., 2007; Jacola et al., 2014).”
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“N-Back Visuo-Spatial Working Memory Task, Baseline Version The baseline visuo-spatial n-back task was similar to those used in recent research with children and adults (see also Ehlis et al. 2008; Jaeggi et al. 2009; Postle et al. 2005; Shallice et al. 2002).”
MethodAbbasi, A. M., Motamedzade, M., Aliabadi, M., Golmohammadi, R., & Tapak, L. (2020) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2020.103189 · Cited by 72
Don’t Lose Your Brain at Work – The Role of Recurrent Novelty at Work in Cognitive and Brain Aging
Oltmanns, J., Godde, B., Winneke, A. H., Richter, G., Niemann, C., Voelcker‐Rehage, C., Schömann, K., & Staudinger, U. M. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00117 · Cited by 74
“Part one gathered information on demographic variables (age, gender, educational attainment, years of education, family status, and number of children).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMcDougall, S. J. P., & House, B. (2012) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2011.640656 · Cited by 70
“However, a recent study by Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides, and Perrig (2008 ) received particular attention because it demonstrated transfer of training from a working memory task (the n -back task; Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Perrig, & Meier, 2010 ) to Raven's matrices, a test of fluid intelligence.”
BackgroundTrujillo, J. P., Gerrits, N. J. H. M., Veltman, D. J., Berendse, H. W., van der Werf, Y. D., & van den Heuvel, O. A. (2015) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22723 · Cited by 68
Why is working memory performance unstable? A review of 21 factors
Blasiman, R. N., & Was, C. A. (2018) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v14i1.1472 · Cited by 65
Williams, T. B., Corbett, J., McMorris, T., Young, J. S., Dicks, M., Ando, S., Thelwell, R., Tipton, M., & Costello, J. T. (2019) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep087647 · Cited by 68
Design by nature: The influence of windows on cognitive performance and affect
Sharam, L. A., Mayer, K. M., & Baumann, O. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101923 · Cited by 77
Long-term brain effects of N-back training: an fMRI study
Miró‐Padilla, A., Bueichekú, E., Ventura‐Campos, N., Flores-Compañ, M.-J., Parcet, M. A., & Ávila, C. (2018) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-018-9925-x · Cited by 67
Divergent Research Methods Limit Understanding of Working Memory Training
Pergher, V., Shalchy, M. A., Pahor, A., Van Hulle, M. M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-019-00134-7 · Cited by 56
Self-citationAbbasi, A. M., Motamedzade, M., Aliabadi, M., Golmohammadi, R., & Tapak, L. (2018) · Building Acoustics · doi:10.1177/1351010x18779518 · Cited by 67
Hinss, M. F., Jahanpour, E., Somon, B., Pluchon, L., Dehais, F., & Roy, R. N. (2023) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-022-01898-y · Cited by 61
“The N-Back task is a popular task for eliciting different levels of mental workload by taking working memory, while keeping visual stimuli as well as motor responses constant 20,33 .”
MethodWorking memory training improves visual short-term memory capacity
Schwarb, H., Nail, J., & Schumacher, E. H. (2016) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-015-0648-y · Cited by 55
Metacognition of multitasking: How well do we predict the costs of divided attention?
Finley, J. R., Benjamin, A. S., & McCarley, J. S. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000010 · Cited by 67
“Some relevant work on metacognition about visual attention has suggested that people tend to overestimate their ability to detect changes (Levin, Momen, Drivdahl, & Simons, 2000) and their ability to simultaneously allocate attention to multiple locations in natural scenes (Kawahara, 2010).”
Construct validity and reliability of working memory tasks for people with aphasia
DeDe, G., Ricca, M., Knilans, J., & Trubl, B. (2014) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2014.895973 · Cited by 59
“For example, Jaeggi et al. (2010) found that the correlation between n-back tasks and reading span was close to zero.”
BackgroundInfluentialCousijn, J., Vingerhoets, W. A. M., Koenders, L., de Haan, L., van den Brink, W., Wiers, R. W. H. J., & Goudriaan, A. E. (2013) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12111 · Cited by 60
“Moreover, the n-back task is a reliable task to investigate functionality of the working-memory network, but it has poor reliability as a behavioral measure of working-memory (Jaeggi et al. 2010).”
BackgroundWalitt, B. T., Čeko, M., Khatiwada, M., Gracely, J. L., Rayhan, R. U., VanMeter, J. W., & Gracely, R. H. (2016) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2016.01.021 · Cited by 61
“In the classic N-back task (Jaeggi et al., 2010) only a proportion of the displayed letters are “targets” (typically 30%); here subjects are required to continuously specify the current letter (0back) or the letter presented two previously (2back).”
BackgroundThe use of standardised short-term and working memory tests in aphasia research: a systematic review
Murray, L. L., Salis, C., Martin, N., & Dralle, J. (2016) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2016.1174718 · Cited by 61
Himi, S. A., Bühner, M., Schwaighofer, M., Klapetek, A., & Hilbert, S. (2019) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2019.04.010 · Cited by 66
Nejati, V., & Derakhshan, Z. (2021) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2021.1912600 · Cited by 67
The effect of threat on attentional interruption by pain
Moore, D., Keogh, E., & Eccleston, C. (2012) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2012.09.009 · Cited by 57
Sleep-Wake Regulation and Its Impact on Working Memory Performance: The Role of Adenosine
Reichert, C., Maire, M., Schmidt, C., & Cajochen, C. (2016) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology5010011 · Cited by 59
“Updating information in the short-term storage, and particularly underlying cerebral correlates, were often deduced by performance in the n-back task (see [141] for discussion).”
BackgroundAre Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific?
Holmes, J., Woolgar, F., Hampshire, A., & Gathercole, S. E. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01103 · Cited by 55
A Current View on Dual-Task Paradigms and Their Limitations to Capture Cognitive Load
Bijarsari, S. E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648586 · Cited by 66
Frost, A., Moussaoui, S., Kaur, J., Aziz, S., Fukuda, K., & Niemeier, M. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103398 · Cited by 56
Exposure to greenspace and bluespace and cognitive functioning in children – A systematic review
Buczyłowska, D., Zhao, T., Singh, N., Jurczak, A., Siry, A. M., & Markevych, I. (2023) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2023.115340 · Cited by 58
Gaudeau-Bosma, C., Moulier, V., Allard, A.-C., Sidhoumi, D., Bouaziz, N., Braha, S., Volle, E., & Januel, D. (2012) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2012.10.009 · Cited by 57
Metadata
- Authors
- Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- University of Bern (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Jaeggi, Susanne M.
- Venue
- Memory
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2010-04-19
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 394-412
- ISSN
- 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0686
- OpenAlex
- W2104281515
- Semantic Scholar
- 1cdd5a855d4ded37954d52981b618cd9a6576f96
- Cited by
- 981
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 85 · 2025: 92 · 2024: 112 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 48 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 28.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, concurrent validity, individual differences, reliability statistics, fluid intelligence, workload, psychometric properties
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Association Learning, Attention, Female, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Psychometrics, Reaction Time, Reading, Retention, Psychology, Serial Learning, Speech Perception, Verbal Learning, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult, Executive Function
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