Radiocarbon dating the Late Bronze Age: Cultural and Historical Considerations on Megiddo and Beyond
Abstract
Megiddo, with its tight stratigraphy and well-controlled ceramic typology, yielded more than half of the radiocarbon determinations for the time span of the Middle Bronze II to the Iron I in the southern Levant. Here we present two radiocarbon models for this entire sequence, focusing on the Late Bronze Age—1) for Megiddo; 2) for Megiddo and Beth-Shean—adding a third model for sites which provide results relevant to the Middle Bronze III/Late Bronze I transition. We then discuss the impact of the results on the material culture and history of Megiddo in particular and the southern Levant (and eastern Mediterranean) in general.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The three Megiddo outliers were found in close proximity to each other at Level K-10, which is radiocarbon dated to 1581-1545 BCE (domestic occupation) and 1578-1421 BCE (burials; both ±1σ), while the bone of one of the three (I10100) was directly dated (1688-1535 BCE, ±2σ).
“The three were found in close proximity to each other at Level K-10, which is radiocarbon dated to 1581–1545 BCE (domestic occupation) and 1578–1421 BCE (burials; both ±1σ) (Martin et al., 2020; Toffolo et al., 2014), while the bone of one of the three (I10100) was directly dated (1688–1535 BCE, ±2σ).”
From The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant (2020) · cites this paper as Martin et al., 2020
Cites
IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP
Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Blackwell, P. G., Ramsey, C. B., Buck, C. E., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Friedrich, M., et al. (2013) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947 · Cited by 14,591 · see citing works
Bayesian Analysis of Radiocarbon Dates
Bronk Ramsey, C. (2009) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/s0033822200033865 · Cited by 8,725 · see citing works
Radiocarbon Calibration and Analysis of Stratigraphy: The OxCal Program
Bronk Ramsey, C. (1995) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/s0033822200030903 · Cited by 2,409 · see citing works
Radiocarbon dating and the “old wood” problem: The case of the Hohokam chronology
Schiffer, M. B. (1986) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/0305-4403(86)90024-5 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt
Ramsey, C. B., Dee, M. W., Rowland, J. M., Higham, T. F. G., Harris, S. A., Brock, F., Quiles, A., Wild, E. M., Marcus, E. S., & Shortland, A. J. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1189395 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Archaeology of the land of the Bible, 10,000-586 B.C.E
(1990) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-2322 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
(1989) · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Chronology for the Aegean Late Bronze Age 1700-1400 B.C.
Manning, S. W., Ramsey, C. B., Kutschera, W., Higham, T., Kromer, B., Steier, P., & Wild, E. M. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1125682 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
The Egyptian empire in Palestine: A reassessment
Weinstein, J. M. (1981) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research · doi:10.2307/1356708 · Cited by 147 · cited 1× · see citing works
“9 See, for instance, Kenyon 1960: 195–206; Wright 1961; Seger 1975; Redford 1979: 273; Shea 1979; Weinstein 1981: 1–15, 1991; Bienkowski 1986: 127–28; Hoffmeier 1989, 1990, 1991; Dever 1990, 1992: 12–17, 1997, 1998; Bietak 1991: 57–62; Naʾaman 1994; Bunimovitz 1995: 320–24; Morris 2005: 27–38;…”
Report on the first stage of the Iron Age dating project in Israel: supporting a low chronology.
Sharon, I., Gilboa, A., Jull, A. J. T., & Boaretto, E. (2007) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/s0033822200041886 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Finkelstein, I., & Piasetzky, E. I. (2010) · Antiquity · doi:10.1017/s0003598x00066643 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Self-citationA New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land
Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. (1994) · Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society · doi:10.1017/s1356186300005952 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Annual radiocarbon record indicates 16th century BCE date for the Thera eruption
Pearson, C. L., Brewer, P. W., Brown, D., Heaton, T. J., Hodgins, G. W. L., Jull, A. J. T., Lange, T., & Salzer, M. W. (2018) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aar8241 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
The Bible and the Ancient near East: Essays in Honor of William Foxwell Albright
Pope, M. H., & Wright, G. E. (1961) · Journal of Biblical Literature · doi:10.2307/3264786 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Egypt and Canaan during the Middle Bronze Age
Bietak, M. (1991) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental research · doi:10.2307/1357163 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
The Date of the Settlement of the Philistines in Canaan
Finkelstein, I. (1995) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1179/tav.1995.1995.2.213 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationManning, S. W., Höflmayer, F., Moeller, N., Dee, M. W., Ramsey, C. B., Fleitmann, D., Higham, T., Kutschera, W., & Wild, E. M. (2014) · Antiquity · doi:10.1017/s0003598x00115388 · Cited by 73 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…high radiocarbon chronologies of Tell ed-Dabʿa (1650 B.C.E. or a little later) and Santorini (late 17th century B.C.E.) have been subject to fervent debates in the last two decades (Manning 1999, 2014; Bietak 2004, 2013, 2014, 2015; Manning et al. 2006, 2014; Höflmayer 2012; Kutschera et al. 2012).”
BackgroundThe Middle and Late Bronze Age Strata at Megiddo
Kenyon, K. M. (1969) · Levant · doi:10.1179/lev.1969.1.1.25 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Kutschera, W., Bietak, M., Wild, E. M., Ramsey, C. B., Dee, M., Golser, R., Kopetzky, K., Stadler, P., Steier, P., Thanheiser, U., et al. (2012) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/s0033822200047172 · Cited by 58 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…high radiocarbon chronologies of Tell ed-Dabʿa (1650 B.C.E. or a little later) and Santorini (late 17th century B.C.E.) have been subject to fervent debates in the last two decades (Manning 1999, 2014; Bietak 2004, 2013, 2014, 2015; Manning et al. 2006, 2014; Höflmayer 2012; Kutschera et al. 2012).”
BackgroundContributions to the Chronology of the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period
Schneider, T. (2011) · Ägypten und Levante · doi:10.1553/aeundl20s373 · Cited by 57 · cited 1× · see citing works
“High New Kingdom chronologies have been proposed more recently, with the beginning of the 18th Dynasty at 1548 (Schneider 2010), 1565, or even 1576 B.C.E. (cf. Aston 2012), as opposed to the conventional low 1540 B.C.E. (Kitchen 2000).”
BackgroundManning, S. W., Griggs, C., Lorentzen, B., Bronk Ramsey, C., Chivall, D., Jull, A. J. T., & Lange, T. E. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1719420115 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The Destruction of Megiddo at the End of the Late Bronze Age and its Historical Significance
Ussishkin, D. (1995) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1179/tav.1995.1995.2.240 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Hurrians and the End of the Middle Bronze Age in Palestine
Na'aman, N. (1994) · Levant · doi:10.1179/lev.1994.26.1.175 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Garfinkel, Y., Hasel, M. G., Klingbeil, M. G., Kang, H.-G., Choi, G., Chang, S.-Y., Hong, S., Ganor, S., Kreimerman, I., & Ramsey, C. B. (2019) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/rdc.2019.5 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Asscher, Y., Lehmann, G., Rosen, S. A., Weiner, S., & Boaretto, E. (2015) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.2458/azu_rc.57.16961 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
The Date of the Minoan Santorini Eruption: Quantifying the “Offset”
Höflmayer, F. (2012) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/s0033822200047196 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Fantalkin, A., Finkelstein, I., & Piasetzky, E. I. (2015) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research · doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.373.0025 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationAsscher, Y., Cabanes, D., Hitchcock, L. A., Maeir, A. M., Weiner, S., & Boaretto, E. (2015) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.2458/azu_rc.57.18391 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The Chronology of Syria-Palestine in the Second Millennium B.C.E.: A Review of Current Issues
Dever, W. G. (1992) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research · doi:10.2307/1357228 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Bruins, H. J., & Van Der Plight, J. (1995) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/s0033822200030666 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Redford, D. B. (1979) · Journal of the American Oriental Society · doi:10.2307/602663 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Constantinidis, D. (2016) · Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies · doi:10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.4.4.0365 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
To Date or Not to Date: Radiocarbon and the Arrival of the Philistines
Finkelstein, I. (2016) · Ägypten und Levante · doi:10.1553/aeundl26s275 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationReconsidering Egypt’s Part in the Termination of the Middle Bronze Age in Palestine
Hoffmeier, J. K. (2020) · Levant · doi:10.1080/00758914.1989.12096545 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Finkelstein, I., Arie, E., Martin, M. A. S., & Piasetzky, E. I. (2017) · Ägypten und Levante · doi:10.1553/aeundl27s261 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationEgypt and the Middle Bronze IIC/Late Bronze IA Transition in Palestine
Weinstein, J. (1991) · Levant · doi:10.1179/lev.1991.23.1.105 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Boaretto, E., Asscher, Y., Hitchcock, L. A., Lehmann, G., Maeir, A. M., & Weiner, S. (2018) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/rdc.2018.57 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Radiocarbon and the date of the Thera eruption
Bietak, M. (2014) · Antiquity · doi:10.1017/s0003598x00050389 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Provenance of Philistine Pottery in Northern Canaan, with a Focus on the Jezreel Valley
Martin, M. A. S. (2017) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1080/03344355.2017.1357310 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationMegiddo in the Late Bronze Age-Another Reassessment
Gonen, R. (1987) · Levant · doi:10.1179/lev.1987.19.1.83 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The Aegean Pottery at Megiddo: An Appraisal and Reanalysis
Léonard, A., & Cline, E. H. (1998) · Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research · doi:10.2307/1357601 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
‘Hyksos’, Egyptian Destructions, and the end of the Palestinian Middle Bronze Age
Dever, W. (1990) · Levant · doi:10.1179/lev.1990.22.1.75 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
James Weinstein's ‘Egypt and the Middle Bronze IIC/Late Bronze IA Transition’: A Rejoinder
Hoffmeier, J. K. (1991) · Levant · doi:10.1179/lev.1991.23.1.117 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hoffmeier, J. K. (1990) · Levant · doi:10.1179/lev.1990.22.1.83 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant
Agranat-Tamir, L., Waldman, S., Martin, M. A. S., Gokhman, D., Mishol, N., Eshel, T., Cheronet, O., Rohland, N., Mallick, S., Adamski, N., et al. (2020) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.024 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationArchaeomagnetism in the Levant and Mesopotamia Reveals the Largest Changes in the Geomagnetic Field
Shaar, R., Gallet, Y., Vaknin, Y., Gonen, L., Martin, M. A. S., Adams, M. J., & Finkelstein, I. (2022) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth · doi:10.1029/2022jb024962 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationDoumet‐Serhal, C., Gimatzidis, S., Weninger, B. P., von Rüden, C., & Kopetzky, K. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0274979 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Bietak, M. (2022) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783110761665-017 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Shaar, R., Bechar, S., Finkelstein, I., Gallet, Y., Martin, M. A. S., Ebert, Y., Keinan, J., & Gonen, L. (2020) · Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · doi:10.1029/2020gc009251 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationMIDDLE BRONZE AGE JERUSALEM: RECALCULATING ITS CHARACTER AND CHRONOLOGY
Regev, J., Gadot, Y., Roth, H., Uziel, J., Chalaf, O., Ben-Ami, D., Mintz, E., Regev, L., & Boaretto, E. (2021) · Radiocarbon · doi:10.1017/rdc.2021.21 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Eshel, T., Gilboa, A., Tirosh, O., Erel, Y., & Yahalom‐Mack, N. (2022) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2022.105705 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Finkelstein, I. (2020) · Palestine Exploration Quarterly · doi:10.1080/00310328.2020.1738145 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationEshel, T., & Finkelstein, I. (2024) · Archaeometry · doi:10.1111/arcm.13021 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationHoarding at Megiddo in the Late Bronze and Iron I
Hall, E. (2021) · Tel Aviv · doi:10.1080/03344355.2021.1904677 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Climate and Environment in the Southern Levant, 1300–300 BCE
Langgut, D. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009558341 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Tel Dor in the Middle Bronze Age and Maritime Adaptation along the Carmel Coast
Yasur‐Landau, A., Houghtalin, C., Runjajić, M., Dunseth, Z. C., & Shahack‐Gross, R. (2024) · Bulletin of the American Society of Overseas Research · doi:10.1086/729120 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Gezer Discrepancy: Comments on Recently Published Radiocarbon Dates
Finkelstein, I., & Piasetzky, E. I. (2024) · Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies · doi:10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.12.4.0437 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationMartin, M. A. S., & Finkelstein, I. (2025) · Near Eastern Archaeology · doi:10.1086/735555 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationOrduña, E. G. (2024) · Levant · doi:10.1080/00758914.2024.2409546 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Establishing an absolute chronology of the Middle Bronze Age.
Höflmayer, F. (2022) · The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume II · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190687571.003.0011 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Megiddo in the Middle Bronze Age
Adams, M. J., Martin, M. A. S., Dunseth, Z. C., Yasur‐Landau, A., & Finkelstein, I. (2025) · Near Eastern Archaeology · doi:10.1086/735561 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationA Reassessment of Scientific Evidence for the Exodus and Conquest
Dickin, A. (2025) · Christian Perspectives on Science and Technology · doi:10.58913/nzya6759
DID TRADE STOP IN THE EARLY IRON AGE? THE EVIDENCE FROM PHILISTIA AND BEYOND
Maeir, A. M. (2023) · Diacrítica · doi:10.21814/diacritica.4759
The Contribution of the Megiddo Expedition to the Archaeology of the Levant and Beyond
Finkelstein, I., & Adams, M. J. (2025) · Near Eastern Archaeology · doi:10.1086/736852
Self-citationGoudie, A. S. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-95555-6_8
- Authors
- Martin, M. A. S., Finkelstein, I., & Piasetzky, E.
- Venue
- Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
- Publisher
- University of Chicago Press
- Published
- 2020-11-01
- Volume
- 384
- Pages
- 211-240
- ISSN
- 0003-097X (ISSN-L)
- 2161-8062
- OpenAlex
- W3042611917
- Cited by
- 20
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 1.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and History
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Biblical Studies and Interpretation
- Keywords
- Late Bronze Age, Megiddo, Beth Shean, radiocarbon chronology, Southern Levant, ceramic typology, stratigraphy, Eastern Mediterranean
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
