Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt

Class 1 dates included samples on short-lived plant remains and terrestrial avian eggshell, all of which have been shown to produce consistent and reliable ages in the Pacific relative to the target event.

“Class 1 dates included samples on short-lived plant remains (e.g., twig charcoal or wood, bark, seeds, leaves) and terrestrial avian eggshell, all of which have been shown to produce consistent and reliable ages in the Pacific relative to the target event, i.e., human activity (4, 6, 7, 32).”

The precise dendro-14C-based timescale enables a robust historical synthesis of Ancient Near Eastern civilization in the earlier second millennium BCE; in particular, it facilitates comparison with the coherent historical and 14C-based timescale recently available from Egypt.

“Our precise dendro-14C-based timescale enables a robust historical synthesis of Ancient Near Eastern civilization in the earlier second millennium BCE; in particular, it facilitates comparison with the coherent historical and 14C-based timescale recently available from Egypt [50].”

The end of the EB III cultural horizon is traditionally seen as contemporaneous with the reign of Pepi I, variously dated by Egyptologists to 2321-2287 BC or 2289-2255 BC, and recently by 14C to 2399-2310 BC (1σ) or 2389-2349 BC (2σ).

“The end of the EB III cultural horizon is traditionally seen as contemporaneous with the reign of Pepi I (de Miroschedji 2012), variously dated by Egyptologists to 2321-2287 BC (Shaw 2000) or 2289-2255 BC (Baines and Malek 1980), and recently by 14 C to 2399-2310 BC ( 1σ) or 2389-2349 BC (2σ) (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010).”

Bayesian modelling can generate decadal or annual precision.

“Bayesian modelling can generate this sort of precision (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010; Dee et al. 2013)”

The growth period of tree rings in central and northern Europe and northern America that comprise the Holocene IntCal record is spring through summer, whereas many plants in the Mediterranean and Near East grow in winter to early summer.

“An example of the latter is the difference between the growth period of tree rings in central and northern Europe and northern America that comprise the Holocene IntCal record (spring through summer), versus those of many plants in the Mediterranean and Near East (winter to early summer)5–8,10.”

There are indications of small, fluctuating 14C offsets that may affect accurate 14C-based chronology in some mid-latitude regions at high resolution.

“However, there are indications of small, fluctuating, 14C offsets which, at high-resolution, may affect accurate 14C-based chronology in some mid-latitude regions5–10.”

The impact of these 14C offsets can be substantial for Mediterranean and Near Eastern archaeology because of intricate and densely integrated timeframes and small margins of tolerance.

“While small, the impact of these 14C offsets can be substantial for Mediterranean and Near Eastern archaeology because of the intricate and densely integrated timeframes involved and the small margins of tolerance2,7,8,10,12.”

There is a potential for different aspects of the annual 14C cycle to be represented, especially as measurement of 14C increases in accuracy and precision.

“Hence, there is a potential for different aspects of the annual 14C cycle to be represented, especially as measurement of 14C increases in accuracy and precision6–10.”

Based on existing observations, 14C offsets are typically evident only over certain periods, and become visible in the context of longer high-resolution rigid or near-rigid time-series.

“Based on existing observations, 14C offsets are typically evident only over certain periods, and become visible in the context of longer high-resolution rigid or near-rigid time-series5–8,10,13.”

The data indicated it was necessary to make allowance for an Egyptian offset in local 14C levels.

“However, the data indicated it was necessary to make allowance for an Egyptian offset in local 14C levels6, 7.”

The Egyptian New Kingdom dataset indicated a seasonal 14C offset of ~19 ± 5 14C years against IntCal04.

“This indicated a seasonal 14C offset of ~ 19 ± 5 14C years against IntCal047,32.”

A model combining available 14C dates and historical constraints indicates a maximum possible offset around the time of the burial of Tutankhamun of ~19 14C years versus IntCal20.

“A model combining the available 14C dates and the historical constraints7, 33,50 (Supplementary Table S3) indicates a maximum possible offset around the time of the burial of Tutankhamun of ~ 19 14C years versus IntCal20 (Fig. 4b).”

The Egyptian NK data and the OxCal CQL2 code have been published.

“The Egyptian NK data and the OxCal CQL2 code have been published7.”

The construction of the Egyptian NK model and the historical priors included are as published.

“The construction of the Egyptian NK model and the historical priors included are as published7,33.”

Bronk Ramsey et al. included 10 high-quality radiocarbon dates for Senusert III, yielding modeled calibrated age ranges for his accession year: 1σ 1884-1860 cal BCE, 2σ 1889-1836 cal BCE.

“The investigation by Bronk Ramsey et al. [43] included 10 high-quality radiocarbon dates in relation to Senusert III, which yielded the following modeled calibrated age ranges for his accession year: 1σ 1884–1860 cal BCE, 2σ 1889–1836 cal BCE.”

Radiocarbon dating studies support a high chronology for the Middle Kingdom.

“Concerning Senusert III, there are a number of radiocarbon dating studies, supporting a high chronology for the Middle Kingdom [43,162,163].”

A high chronology for the Middle Kingdom is supported by radiocarbon dating of organic materials related to Senusert III.

“A high chronology for the Middle Kingdom is supported by radiocarbon dating of organic materials related to Senusert III [74,162,163].”

Previous radiocarbon investigations regarding king Senusert III support a high Middle Kingdom chronology.

“Previous radiocarbon investigations regarding king Senusert III support a high Middle Kingdom chronology [43,162,163].”

Over 200 new measurements for dynastic Egypt proved the reliability of the historical chronology as outlined by Kenneth Kitchen, although a slightly earlier start for the New Kingdom seems possible.

“over 200 new measurements for dynastic Egypt proved the reliability of the historical chronology as outlined by Kenneth Kitchen,5 although a slightly earlier start for the New Kingdom seems to be possible”

The recent project on Egyptian chronology and radiocarbon dating was able to prove that radiocarbon confirms the Egyptian historical chronology.

“Although the recent project on Egyptian chronology and radiocarbon dating was able to prove that radio-carbon confirms the Egyptian historical chronology”

Based on the New Kingdom model published by Christopher Bronk Ramsey and colleagues, the start of Thutmose III's reign can be dated between 1494 and 1483 BC, and the beginning of the reign of Amenhotep II between 1441 and 1431 BC.

“Based on the New Kingdom chronological model published by Christopher Bronk Ramsey and colleagues, the start of Thutmose III's reign can be dated between 1494 and 1483 BC while the beginning of the reign of Amenhotep II can be dated between 1441 and 1431 BC.”

With Bayesian analysis including relative historical data from Egypt, 14C dating and the Egyptian chronology agree well with each other for the dynastic periods in Egypt.

“Recently, it has been shown (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010) that with the application of Bayesian analysis including relative historical data from Egypt, 14 C dating and the Egyptian chronology agree well with each other for the dynastic periods in Egypt.”

The recently established agreement between 14C dates and dynastic Egypt makes it unlikely that the problem lies in the 14C dates and/or the Egyptian historical chronology.

“On the one hand, the recently established agreement between 14 C dates and dynastic Egypt (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010) makes it unlikely that the problem lies in the 14 C dates and/or the Egyptian historical chronology.”

A general offset of the order of 100 yr for 14C dates in Egypt can be ruled out, because a good agreement has been found between 14C dates of short-lived organic material directly linked to the Egyptian historical chronology.

“Since a good agreement has been found between the 14 C dates of short-lived organic material directly linked to the Egyptian historical chronology (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010), a general offset of the order of 100 yr for 14 C dates in Egypt can be ruled out.”

While direct comparison of 14C dating with dynastic Egypt led to a good agreement with the historical Egyptian chronology, there are serious discrepancies at places where the absolute timescale of an archaeological excavation has been established by specific links to the Egyptian chronology.

“While the direct comparison of 14 C dating with dynastic Egypt led to a good agreement with the historical Egyptian chronology (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010), there are serious discrepancies at places where the absolute timescale of an archaeological excavation has been established by specific links to the Egyptian chronology.”

Even if there were some dead-carbon uptake from water causing the 120-yr shift, it would probably also have appeared in the Oxford measurements, because essentially all freshwater in Egypt is supplied by the Nile.

“Even if there would be some dead-carbon uptake from water causing the 120-yr shift, it would probably also have appeared in the Oxford measurements (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010), because essentially all freshwater in Egypt is supplied by the Nile.”

Recent 14C measurements of samples from the Amarna period agree well with the historical Egyptian chronology.

“Recent 14 C measurements of samples from the Amarna period agree well with the historical Egyptian chronology (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010).”

In Bronk Ramsey et al., the Old Kingdom 500-year contiguous sequence was defined only by 17 radiocarbon dates.

“The situation for the OK was even more unsatisfactory, with the position of this 500-year contiguous sequence defined only by 17 14C dates.”

Bronk Ramsey et al. used 211 radiocarbon dates from Egyptian contexts linked with specific kings and text data on reign lengths to produce a science-based absolute chronology.

“Their study utilized 211 14C dates from a wide range of Egyptian contexts linked with specific kings, and, combined with text data on the reign-lengths of these rulers, resulted in a science-based absolute chronology.”

Bronk Ramsey et al. accurately positioned the New Kingdom but did not achieve a conclusive result for the Old and Middle Kingdoms, mainly due to limited relevant sample material.

“While this analysis accurately positioned the New Kingdom (NK, c. mid-late 2nd millennium), a conclusive result for the OK and MK was not achieved, mainly due to the limited amount of relevant sample material available for these periods.”

In Bronk Ramsey et al., almost equivalent probability was allocated to both High and Low chronologies for many royal accession dates of the Middle Kingdom.

“For example, an almost equivalent probability was still allocated to both High and Low Chronologies for many royal accession dates of the MK.”

The Old Kingdom chronological models, comprising 33 radiocarbon dates, reaffirm the High chronological estimates achieved previously and rule out the Low chronological position at 95% probability.

“Even though our chronological models are the most comprehensive ever constructed for this period (33 14C dates), our results act to reaffirm the High chronological estimates achieved previously (Fig 1) [43]. Indeed, the Low chronological position (blue vertical line in Fig 1) [21] is ruled out at 95% probability.”

The offset observed is of comparable size to those previously suggested to result from regional differences in 14C uptake.

“The offset that we observe is of comparable size to those previously suggested to result from regional differences in 14 C uptake ( 16 )”

The positive offsets are typically in the range found previously for substantive seasonal or growing season differences: ~2 to 4‰ (that is, ~16 to 32 14C years).

“The offsets are typically in the range found previously for substantive seasonal or growing season differences: ~2 to 4‰ (that is, ~16 to 32 14C years) (15–18, 23, 26).”

For Egypt, an offset allowance of 19 ± 5 14C years was proposed and appears necessary to achieve plausible protohistoric dates.

“The partial exception is Egypt, where an offset allowance of 19 ± 5 14C years was proposed (16, 23) and appears necessary to achieve plausible protohistoric dates (23, 24).”

There are several periods where 14C dates on Egyptian samples appear to fit the pattern of the Mediterranean-relevant Hd GOR record much better than the IntCal04 record, as well as without application of a static correction factor.

“There are several periods where the 14C dates on the Egyptian samples, in fact, appear to fit the pattern of the Mediterranean-relevant Hd GOR record much better than the IntCal04 (2) record, as well as without application of a static correction factor (16, 23).”

Using the information added in the table S1 addendum to (23), we achieved lower values for a ΔR test 0,10 across five runs of μ ± σ: 11.3 ± 5.4 to 12.0 ± 5.9 14C years.

“using the information added in the table S1 addendum to (23), we achieved lower values for a ΔR test 0,10 across five runs of μ ± σ: 11.3 ± 5.4 to 12.0 ± 5.9 14C years”

A comparison of the large New Kingdom AMS 14C dataset of Egyptian samples found an offset against LLGPC IntCal04 with a mean of ~18 14C years, generalized as ~20 ± 5 14C years.

“with a mean of ~18 14C years (generalized as ~20 ± 5 14C years in the text of ref. (23) ; we use this SD below) against LLGPC IntCal04”

OxA AMS 14C data, or the demonstrated very comparable Vienna (VERA) AMS 14C data, comprise 79% and 75% of the two datasets for the Thera volcanic destruction level.

“These comparisons especially including OxA AMS 14C data are particularly relevant to the Thera case since OxA AMS 14C data, or the demonstrated very comparable Vienna (VERA) AMS 14C data (23, 46, 55), comprise 79% and 75% of the two datasets (55, 56) for the Thera volcanic destruction level.”

Mainstream assessments of historical sources place the time range for the accession of Tutankhamun and his death likely in his 9th or 10th year, somewhere between ~1336/1325 and 1327/1316 BCE.

“Mainstream assessments of historical sources place the time range for the accession of Tutankhamun (the king and his court subsequently leave Amarna for Memphis early in his reign) and his death likely in his 9th or 10th year, somewhere between ~1336/1325 and 1327/1316 BCE (23, 24, 49).”

The Bronk Ramsey et al. (2010) study rules out some revisionist low chronologies and questions other extreme views.

“Huber (2011:211) accepts that the Bronk Ramsey et al. (2010) study rules out some revisionist low chronologies and questions other extreme views”

Recent work has demonstrated a very good correlation between sophisticated 14C dating and standard historical Egyptian chronology through the 2nd millennium BC.

“and recent work has instead demonstrated a very good correlation between sophisticated 14 C dating and standard historical Egyptian chronology through the 2nd millennium BC (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010;Manning et al. 2012).”

Sophisticated 14C dating works very well in Egypt and offers a close match with the historical chronology.

“We also know that sophisticated 14 C dating works very well in Egypt and offers a close match with the historical chronology (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010).”

Recent studies and discussion of 18th Dynasty chronology may have a slight bearing on the exact date of these connections, but would not change overall conclusions.

“Recent studies and discussion of 18th Dynasty chronology may have a slight bearing on the exact date of these connections, but would not change overall conclusions”

Recently, the results of the extensive project on Egyptian chronology and 14C dating were published, providing more than 200 new measurements for samples from securely dated contexts, including 128 dates for the New Kingdom.

“Recently, the results of the extensive project on Egyptian chronology and 14 C dating were published, providing more than 200 new measurements for samples from securely dated contexts (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010), including 128 dates for the New Kingdom.”

The recent publication of over 200 new 14C dates for dynastic Egypt rules out a major flaw in the historical chronology of Egypt and proves the reliability of 14C dating in the Nile Valley.

“The recent publication of over 200 new ,4 C dates for dynastic Egypt rules out a major flaw in the historical chronology of Egypt and proves the reliability of 14 C dating in the Nile Valley.”