n-3 Fatty acid dietary recommendations and food sources to achieve essentiality and cardiovascular benefits.
Open accessAbstract
Dietary recommendations have been made for n-3 fatty acids, including alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) to achieve nutrient adequacy and to prevent and treat cardiovascular disease. These recommendations are based on a large body of evidence from epidemiologic and controlled clinical studies. The n-3 fatty acid recommendation to achieve nutritional adequacy, defined as the amount necessary to prevent deficiency symptoms, is 0.6-1.2% of energy for ALA; up to 10% of this can be provided by EPA or DHA. To achieve recommended ALA intakes, food sources including flaxseed and flaxseed oil, walnuts and walnut oil, and canola oil are recommended. The evidence base supports a dietary recommendation of approximately 500 mg/d of EPA and DHA for cardiovascular disease risk reduction. For treatment of existing cardiovascular disease, 1 g/d is recommended. These recommendations have been embraced by many health agencies worldwide. A dietary strategy for achieving the 500-mg/d recommendation is to consume 2 fish meals per week (preferably fatty fish). Foods enriched with EPA and DHA or fish oil supplements are a suitable alternate to achieve recommended intakes and may be necessary to achieve intakes of 1 g/d.
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On average, North American adults eat <1 serving per week of fish/seafood; thus, the mean intake of DHA+EPA in the United States is only ~100 mg/d.
“on average, North American adults eat <1 serving per week of fish/seafood; thus, the mean intake of DHA+EPA in the United States (US) is only ~100 mg/d114.”
From Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Treatment on Risk for Atrial Fibrillation: An Updated Meta-Analysis of 35 Trials including 114 592 Individuals (2026) · cites this paper as [114]
Algae have recently been cultivated to preferentially produce DHA, and their oil has been extracted to make supplements.
“Recently, algae have been cultivated to preferentially produce DHA and their oil has been extracted to make supplements (13,14).”
U.S. consumption of total polyunsaturated fatty acids and ALA are around 6-7% and 0.6-0.7% of total energy intake, respectively.
“Comparatively, U.S. consumption of total polyunsaturated fatty acids and ALA are around 6–7% and 0.6–0.7% of total energy intake, respectively[382,383].”
From Enterosalivary nitrate metabolism and the microbiome: Intersection of microbial metabolism, nitric oxide and diet in cardiac and pulmonary vascular health (2017) · cites this paper as [383]
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- Authors
- Gebauer, S. K., Psota, T. L., Harris, W. S., & Kris-Etherton, P. M.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 83
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1526S-1535S
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1858298699
- Cited by
- 642
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 41 · 2012: 44
- FWCI
- 4.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Aquatic Science › Aquaculture Nutrition and Growth
- Keywords
- omega-3 fatty acids, dietary recommendations, alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, cardiovascular disease prevention, cardiovascular disease treatment, fish oil supplements, fatty fish consumption, flaxseed, Juglans regia, canola oil, omega-3 deficiency, nutritional adequacy
- MeSH terms
- Cardiovascular Diseases, Fish Oils, Food Analysis, Food, Fortified, Humans, Nutritional Requirements, Fatty Acids, Omega-3, Epidemiologic Studies, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Seafood, Nutrition Policy, Evidence-Based Medicine, Dietary Supplements
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