Requests and Apologies: A Cross-Cultural Study of Speech Act Realization Patterns (CCSARP)1
Abstract
SHOSHANA BLUM-KULKA, ELITE OLSHTAIN; Requests and Apologies: A Cross-Cultural Study of Speech Act Realization Patterns (CCSARP)1, Applied Linguistics, Volu
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“For details of the study see Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984), and Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper (forthcoming).”
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Apology strategies in natives/non-natives
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“Following work in pragmatics (Blum-Kulka and Olshtain, 1984), we consider Move 5, Proof of Action, as analogous with “Repair” (i.e., some expression of “we took action to fix the problem”), whereas our Move 9, Avoidance of Recurring Problem, would analogous to the category of “Promise of…”
MethodThe Language of Requesting in Israeli Society
Blum‐Kulka, S., Danet, B., & Gherson, R. (1985) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-5074-6_7 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Self-citationThe pragmatics of political apologies
Harris, S. J., Grainger, K. P., & Mullany, L. (2006) · Discourse & Society · doi:10.1177/0957926506068429 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
“For example, one of the most well-known studies of the apology (Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project: Blum-Kulka and Olshtain, 1984) makes use of discourse completion tests in such a way as to ensure that informants’ responses must conform to researchers’ expectations of what constitutes an apology, involving…”
Chen, R. (2001) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/s0378-2166(99)00124-1 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Apologizing in English, Polish and Hungarian: Different languages, different strategies
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“" This confirms the findings presented by Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1985) where the authors suggest that utterance length can function as a potential and unintended violation of a native norm which might lead to pragmatic failure.”
ResultSelf-citationCross cultural pragmatics: Apology strategies in Sudanese Arabic
Nureddeen, F. A. (2008) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2007.11.001 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
New Zealand women are good to talk to: An analysis of politeness strategies in interaction
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The Pragmatics of Making Requests in the L2 Workplace: A Case Study of Language Socialization
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An Exploration of the Structure of Effective Apologies
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Requests as speech acts in Zulu
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Obeng, S. G. (1999) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/s0378-2166(98)00089-7 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Apology strategies of Jordanian EFL university students
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Speech acts and questionnaires: The effect of hearer response
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Opposition in Modern Greek discourse: cultural and contextual constraints
Kakavá, C. (2002) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/s0378-2166(02)00075-9 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Hargie, O. D. W., Stapleton, K., & Tourish, D. (2010) · Organization · doi:10.1177/1350508410367840 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“For example, one of the most widely cited studies of apology, the Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (Blum-Kulka and Olshtain, 1984) employed discourse completion tests which meant that the subjects’ responses had to conform to the researchers’ conceptualization of what constituted an apology.”
BackgroundHalenko, N., & Jones, C. (2011) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2011.05.003 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Eliciting Speech Act Data in Japanese: The Effect of Questionnaire Type
Rose, K. R., & Ono, R. (1995) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1995.tb00438.x · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Meier, A. J. (1998) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.1998.tb00130.x · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Request strategies in British English and Japanese
Fukushima, S. (1996) · Language Sciences · doi:10.1016/s0388-0001(96)00041-1 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
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Sociolinguistic Variation in Face-Threatening Speech Acts
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We are sorry: Intergroup apologies and their tenuous link with intergroup forgiveness
Hornsey, M. J., & Wohl, M. J. A. (2013) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2013.822206 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“The most extensive analysis of the content of spoken apologies is the Cross Cultural Speech Acts Realisation Project (see Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Blum-Kulka & Oshtain, 1984; Scher & Darley, 1997) that studied interpersonal apologies across five countries.”
BackgroundMethodCompliments and compliment responses in Kunming Chinese
Yuan, Y. (2015) · Pragmatics Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) · doi:10.1075/prag.12.2.04yua · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Dingemanse, M., & Floyd, S. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139342872.021 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
A sociopragmatic study of apology speech act realization patterns in Persian
Afghari, A. (2007) · Speech Communication · doi:10.1016/j.specom.2007.01.003 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“The works carried out by Olshtain and Cohen (1983), as well as Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984) on apologies suggest that each language has a direct expression of apology using one or more of the apology verbs.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialIndirectness and politeness in Turkish–German bilingual and Turkish monolingual requests
Martı, L. (2005) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2005.05.009 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Mitigation as modification of illocutionary force
Thaler, V. (2012) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2012.04.001 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Shardakova, M. (2005) · Intercultural Pragmatics · doi:10.1515/iprg.2005.2.4.423 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Shariati, M., & Chamani, F. (2009) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2009.10.007 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“…English, Australian English, British English, Canadian French, German, Hebrew, and Russian were examined, based on the elicited data obtained through role-play, from four hundred university students for each language, and coded according to CCSARP coding manual (Blum-Kulka and Olshtain, 1984).”
BackgroundMethodApologies: Words of magic? The role of verbal components, anger reduction, and offence severity.
Kirchhoff, J., Wagner, U., & Strack, M. (2012) · Peace and Conflict Journal of Peace Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028092 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
On the Outcomes of Intergroup Apologies: A Review
Blatz, C. W., & Philpot, C. R. (2010) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00318.x · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Zhu, W. (2012) · RELC Journal · doi:10.1177/0033688212449936 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“According to Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984), making requests is an especially difficult speech act for language learners and especially for second language (L2) learners.”
BackgroundMapping multidimensional aspects of research: Reaching to intercultural rhetoric
Connor, U. (2008) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.169.19con · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Do They Mean What They Say? Sociopragmatic Competence and Second Language Learners
Harlow, L. L. (1990) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1990.tb01070.x · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Revisiting the apology as a speech act
Murphy, J. (2015) · Journal of Language and Politics · doi:10.1075/jlp.14.2.01mur · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Economidou‐Kogetsidis, M. (2013) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2013.03.014 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Chejnová, P. (2013) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2013.10.003 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Chen, R., Lin, H., & Hu, C. (2013) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2013.05.012 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Ali, S. H., Al-Kahtani, W., & Arabia, S. (2005) · Cited by 74 · see citing works
The language of apologizing in Lombok, Indonesia
Wouk, F. (2005) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2005.09.011 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Speech acts and interaction in second language pragmatics: A position paper
House, J., & Kádár, D. Z. (2023) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444822000477 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“L2 pragmatic research involving speech acts can be said to have started in that period (see an early overview in Blum-Kulka & Olshtain, 1984), with the renowned Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realisation Project (CCSARP; Blum-Kulka et al., 1989).”
BackgroundThe acquisition of French apologetic behavior in a study abroad context
Warga, M., & Schölmberger, U. (2007) · Intercultural Pragmatics · doi:10.1515/ip.2007.012 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Based on the work of Fraser (1981), Cohen and Olshtain (1981) developed a model which was later modified in Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984) and became the basis for the CCSARP coding manual (Blum-Kulka et al. 1989b).”
Requestive hints in Japanese and English
Rinnert, C., & Kobayashi, H. (1999) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/s0378-2166(99)00027-2 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Communication Across Cultures: Mutual Understanding in a Global World
Bowe, H., Martin, K., & Manns, H. (2007) · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Eslami, Z. R., Eslami-Rasekh, A., & Fatahi, A. (2004) · Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language--TESL-EJ · Cited by 71 · see citing works
A comparative study of requests in heritage speaker Spanish, L1 Spanish, and L1 English
Pinto, D., & Raschio, R. A. (2007) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/13670069070110020101 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“The Favor scenario is based loosely on a cleaning scenario from Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984), although it was modified to eliminate the complaint-like element in which S may choose to reprimand H. Lastly, the Permission scenario was created by following the research and guidelines of Blum-Kulka,…”
MethodLanguage use as Social Strategy: A Review and an Analytic Framework for the Social Sciences
Guérin, B. (2003) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.7.3.251 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Jiang, X. (2006) · Discourse & Society · doi:10.1177/0957926506060249 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…1981; Sacks, 1995; Schegloff, 1972; Schegloff and Sacks, 1973) and cross-cultural pragmatics (e.g. Beebe and Takahashi, 1989; Beebe et al., 1990; Blum-Kulka and Olshtain, 1984; BlumKulka et al., 1989; Brown & Levinson, 1987) and takes an integrated approach in analyzing press conference…”
BackgroundInfluentialConsumer politeness and complaining behavior
Lerman, D. B. (2006) · Journal of Services Marketing · doi:10.1108/08876040610657020 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Volume 20 · Number 2 · 2006 · 92–100 specific language spoken influence perceptions of politeness (Blum-Kulka and Olshtain, 1984; House and Kasper, 1981; Loveday, 1982).”
BackgroundEvaluations of im/politeness of an intercultural apology
Chang, W.-L. M., & Haugh, M. (2011) · Intercultural Pragmatics · doi:10.1515/iprg.2011.019 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Query preparatory modals: Cross-linguistic and cross-situational variations in request modification
Lin, Y.-H. (2009) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2008.12.007 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Apologies in Arabic and English: An inter-language and cross-cultural study
Zumor, A. Q. A. (2011) · Journal of King Saud University - Languages and Translation · doi:10.1016/j.jksult.2010.02.001 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Offers and requests: performance by Japanese learners of English
Fukushima, S. (1990) · World Englishes · doi:10.1111/j.1467-971x.1990.tb00269.x · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Economidou‐Kogetsidis, M. (2005) · Intercultural Pragmatics · doi:10.1515/iprg.2005.2.3.253 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Economidou‐Kogetsidis, M. (2009) · Multilingua · doi:10.1515/mult.2009.004 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
How to Propose an Action as Objectively Necessary: The Case of Polish Trzeba x (“One Needs to x ”)
Zinken, J., & Ogiermann, E. (2011) · Research on Language and Social Interaction · doi:10.1080/08351813.2011.591900 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Both have been used to cover diverse turn formats, including imperatives, interrogatives, and classic examples of (nonconventionally) indirect speech acts in declarative format (“It’s cold in here”; e.g., Blum-Kulka & Olshtain, 1984).”
Tawalbeh, A., & Al-Oqaily, E. I. (2012) · Asian Social Science · doi:10.5539/ass.v8n10p85 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“They have investigated and compared the use and realizations of speech act of request as performed by native speakers of diverse languages and cultures (Blum-Kulka and Olshtain 1984; Blum-Kulka et al. 1989; Sifianou 1992; Eslamirasekh 1993; Zhang 1995; Fukushima 1996 and 2002; Van Mulken 1996; Liao 1997; Reiter 2000;…”
BackgroundLexical-Grammatical Pragmatic Indicators
Blum‐Kulka, S., & Levenston, E. A. (1987) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263100000450 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citation“Oops, I didn’t mean to be so flippant”. A corpus pragmatic analysis of apologies in blog data
Lutzky, U., & Kehoe, A. (2016) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2016.12.007 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
A cross‐cultural study of directive sequences and some implications for compliance‐gaining research
Fitch, K. L. (1994) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637759409376333 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Rieger, C. L. (2017) · Pragmatics Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) · doi:10.1075/prag.27.4.04rie · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“A frequently quoted view of the apology goes back to Olshtain and Cohen (1983) (e.g., Barron 2009; Blum-Kulka, House & Kasper 1989a; Blum-Kulka & Olshtain 1984; Flores Salgado 2011; Leech 2014; Meier 1998; Ogiermann 2009; Robinson 2004; Trosborg 1995).”
BackgroundTeaching email requests in the academic context: a focus on the role of corrective feedback
Nguyen, T. T. M., Ha, T. T., Nguyen, A. T., et al. (2015) · Language Awareness · doi:10.1080/09658416.2015.1010543 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Request Strategies in Everyday Interactions of Persian and English Speakers
Yazdanfar, S., & Bonyadi, A. (2016) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244016679473 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“(Blum-Kulka & Olshtain, 1984, p. 205) •• Getting a pre-commitment: for example, “Will you do me a favor?”
BackgroundMethodCoding speech acts for their degree of explicitness
Stadler, S. (2010) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2010.08.014 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Culture, Communication, and Preferences for Directness in Expression of Directives
Fitch, K. L., & Sanders, R. E. (1994) · Communication Theory · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.1994.tb00091.x · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Realization of the Speech Acts of Request and Apology by Middle Eastern EFL Learners
Alzeebaree, Y., & Yavuz, M. A. (2017) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.12973/ejmste/79603 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Among these studies is that undertaken by Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984) which examined the issue of universality in pragmatics through cross-cultural perspectives using Discourse Completion Tests.”
BackgroundLexical phrases, culture, and subculture in transactional letter writing
Okamura, A., & Shaw, P. M. (2000) · English for Specific Purposes · doi:10.1016/s0889-4906(98)00004-0 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Studies in Language and Social Interaction
(2013) · Studies in language and social interaction · doi:10.1075/slsi · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Crosscultural pragmatics and the testing of communicative competence
Olshtain, E., & Blum‐Kulka, S. (1985) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/026553228500200103 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“From our earlier work (Olshtain and Blum-Kulka, 1983; and Blum-Kulka and Olshtain, 1984) we have learned that such degrees of equivalence are best set up on two different levels: the sociocultural level and the level of pragmalinguistic realizations.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation“I apologise for my poor blogging”: Searching for Apologies in the Birmingham Blog Corpus
Lutzky, U., & Kehoe, A. (2017) · Corpus Pragmatics · doi:10.1007/s41701-017-0004-0 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“In addition to apologize and sorry, studies on apologies have also investigated standard routine constructions comprising variants of the forms afraid, apology, excuse, forgive, pardon and regret (see e.g. Blum-Kulka and Olshtain 1984; Holmes 1990; Meier 1998; Deutschmann 2003).”
BackgroundCross-cultural impression management in the multicultural workplace: The special case of Hong Kong
Bilbow, G. T. (1997) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/s0378-2166(97)00036-2 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Public ritual apology – A case study of Chinese
Kádár, D. Z., Ning, P., & Ran, Y. (2018) · Discourse Context & Media · doi:10.1016/j.dcm.2018.01.003 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
‘Family-culture’ and Chinese politeness
Chen, X. (2019) · Acta Linguistica Academica · doi:10.1556/2062.2019.66.2.6 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Pragmatics in teacher education for nonnative‐speaking teachers: A consciousness‐raising approach
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Tunisian university students’ choice of apology strategies in a discourse completion task
Jebahi, K. (2010) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2010.09.008 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Decock, S., & Spiessens, A. (2017) · Intercultural Pragmatics · doi:10.1515/ip-2017-0004 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Shishavan, H. B., & Sharifian, F. (2016) · Language & Communication · doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2016.01.001 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Prompting offers of assistance in interaction
Haugh, M. (2017) · Pragmatics and Society · doi:10.1075/ps.8.2.02hau · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The use of apologies by EFL learners
İstifçi, İ. (2009) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v2n3p15 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“According Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984) there are inter-cultural, cross-cultural and individual differences in using speech acts.”
BackgroundDepraetere, I., Decock, S., & Ruytenbeek, N. (2020) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2020.09.026 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
- Authors
- BLUM-KULKA, S., & OLSHTAIN, E.
- Affiliations
- Tel Aviv University (IL)
- ORCID
- OLSHTAIN, E.
- Venue
- Applied Linguistics
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1984-03-01
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 196-213
- ISSN
- 0142-6001 (ISSN-L)
- 1477-450X
- OpenAlex
- W2009497647
- Semantic Scholar
- e7cd5f7d359d1521ffe4a811773667f6b8042536
- Cited by
- 1,242
- References
- 15
- Citations by year
- 2026: 46 · 2025: 53 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 93 · 2017: 86 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 66 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 45 · 2012: 40
- FWCI
- 42.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Applied Linguistics (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and Language Analysis
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Language, Discourse, Communication Strategies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Discourse Analysis in Language Studies
- Keywords
- requests, apology, speech act realization, cross-cultural pragmatics, politeness, speech acts
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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