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Feasibility of a visual prosthesis for the blind based on intracortical micro stimulation of the visual cortex
Abstract
The feasibility of producing a visual prosthesis for the blind using intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) of the visual cortex was studied in a 42-year-old woman who had been totally blind for 22 years secondary to glaucoma. Thirty-eight microelectrodes were implanted in the right visual cortex, near the occipital pole, for a period of 4 months. Percepts reported as small spots of light, called phosphenes, were produced with 34 of the 38 implanted microelectrodes. Threshold currents for phosphene generation with trains of biphasic pulses were as low as 1.9 microA, and most of the microelectrodes had thresholds below 25 microA. Phosphene brightness could be modified with stimulus amplitude, frequency and pulse duration. Repeated stimulation over a period of minutes produced a gradual decrease in phosphene brightness. Phosphenes did not flicker. The apparent size of phosphenes ranged from a "pin-point' to a "nickel' (20 mm diameter coin) held at arm's length. Phosphene size usually decreased as stimulation current was increased but increased slightly as the train length (TL) was increased. At levels of stimulation near threshold, the phosphenes were often reported to have colours. As the stimulation level was increased, the phosphenes generally became white, greyish or yellowish. Individual phosphenes appeared at different distances from the subject. When two phosphenes were simultaneously generated, the apparent distances of the individual phosphenes sometimes changed to make them appear to be at about the same distance. When three or more phosphenes were simultaneously generated, they became coplanar. Except for rare occasions, phosphenes extinguished rapidly at the termination of the stimulation train. When stimulation TLs were increased beyond 1 s, phosphenes usually disappeared before the end of the train. The duration of phosphene perception could be increased by interrupting a long stimulation train with brief pauses in stimulation. Intracortical microelectrodes spaced 500 microns apart generated separate phosphenes, but microelectrodes spaced 250 microns typically did not. This two-point resolution was about five times closer than has typically been achieved with surface stimulation. With some individual microelectrodes, a second closely spaced phosphene was sometimes produced by increasing the stimulation current. Phosphenes moved with eye movements. When up to six phosphenes were simultaneously elicited, they all moved with the same relative orientation during eye movements. All phosphenes were located in the left hemi-field with the majority above the horizontal meridian. There was a clustering of most of the phosphenes within a relatively small area of visual space. The potentially greater microelectrode density and lower power requirements of ICMS compared with surface stimulation appears encouraging for a visual prosthesis. However, further studies with blind subjects are required to optimize stimulation parameters and test complex image recognition before the feasibility of a visual prosthesis based on ICMS can be established.
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“In early testing with VCPs, stimulation of multiple electrodes produced only percepts of multiple isolated phosphenes which did not combine into coherent forms (Dobelle et al., 1976; Schmidt et al., 1996), a finding we replicated in sighted participants implanted with intracranial electrodes for the pre-surgical evaluation of epilepsy (Bosking et al., 2018a).”
From Dynamic Stimulation of Visual Cortex Produces Form Vision in Sighted and Blind Humans (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“However, in the study by Schmidt et al., electrodes were implanted individually and many broke early in the experiment; therefore, only very limited testing of pattern recognition could be conducted.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, phosphene size, stimulation threshold (defined as the minimum current to produce a visible phosphene 50% of the time) and brightness depend on stimulation parameters such as the pulse width, train length, amplitude, and frequency of stimulation (Bak et al., 1990; Schmidt et al., 1996; Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bosking et al., 2017; Niketeghad et al., 2020; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Regarding the color of phosphenes, there is still some ambivalence in the reports, including descriptions of phosphene color ranging from black or white to different tones of color (Tehovnik and Slocum, 2007; Tehovnik et al., 2009; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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In the citing paper
“Our present results support previous findings (5, 10, 38, 39, 41, 42) and show that the border between V1 and V2, which is located near the occipital pole, is a suitable place for a cortical visual prosthesis (37).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
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“This 2-point resolution is closer than the 500 μ m resolution reported previously with a single electrode pair of gold wire electrodes (10), and about 5 times closer than has been achieved with surface electrodes (2-5, 7).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and stimulation via electrodes that were spaced close to each other evoked separate phosphenes”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
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“Furthermore, our simulator includes a model of the temporal dynamics, observed by Schmidt et al., 1996, accounting for response-attenuation after prolonged or repeated stimulation, as well as the delayed ‘offset’ of phosphene perception.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“Figure 4 displays the simulator’s fit on the temporal dynamics found in a previous published study by Schmidt et al., 1996.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“Note that the effects found by Fernández et al., 2021 (that were modeled by us) are consistent with findings by other studies, which report brighter phosphenes for higher stimulation strengths (Schmidt et al., 1996), and a lower stimulation efficiency (i.e. higher total charge thresholds) for longer pulse trains or higher pulse widths and frequencies (Niketeghad et al., 2020).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“However, in contrast to the findings by Schmidt et al., 1996, our simulator predicts a moderate recovery over the next 1000s.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“and in cortical prostheses the position of the artificially induced percept will shift along with eye movements (Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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In the citing paper
“Notably, increasing the stimulation amplitudes can lead the appearance to shift from colored to yellowish or white (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Dynamic optimization of the stimulation may be necessary to counteract unwanted effects such as response fading due to accommodation after repeated or prolonged stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996), or delayed phosphene perception after stimulation on- and offset.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The appearance of phosphenes in our simulation (white, round, soft dots of light) are largely in line with previous reports on intracortical stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996; Bak et al., 1990; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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In the citing paper
“The work of Schmidt et al. (10) showed that microstimulation via microelectrodes that penetrated the visual cortex could help to mitigate some of these limitations.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Phosphenes could be evoked with stimulation currents in the tens of microamps range”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“as has been observed in both the retinal70 and cortical literature34”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Previous experimental studies have found it extremely difficult to generate recognizable shapes through stimulation of multiple electrodes34,84.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Third, although our model fits current temporal data reasonably well and includes desensitization due to the refractory period, it is worth noting that various studies have shown longer-scale desensitization with prolonged stimulation in both human34 and macaque89 and this is also observed with retinal prostheses70.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Penetrating electrodes require orders of magnitude less current and produce smaller phosphenes (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
In the citing paper
“This distance reduces the spatial resolution of artificial vision [99], and high currents might be unsafe due to the risk of seizures [88].”
From Advances in visual prostheses: engineering and biological challenges (2022) · cites this paper as [99]
In the citing paper
“Increasing the electrode density increases the risk of having a stimulation cross-talk and current summation when neighbouring electrodes are activated simultaneously.”
From Three-dimensional multilayer concentric bipolar electrodes restrict spatial activation in optic nerve stimulation (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
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“Incontrast, penetrating MEAs directly interface with neural tissue, enabling signi fi cantly lower thresholds, often just a small fraction of the current required for surface arrays 26,57,58 .”
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“Other factors like electrode size or area were included indirectly via the model underlying the simulator, which was fit on physiological data (Horton and Hoyt 1991, Schmidt et al 1996, Fernandez et al 2021) with parameters adapted to the type of electrodes.”
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“Stimulation (cathodic-first biphasic unipolar pulse train with pulse duration 200 μm, inter-pulse interval 0, train length 300 ms, current intensity 10 μA) at 50 Hz and lower produces individual activation peaks, while 100 and above stimulation is continuous (Fig. 6). A cortical fusion frequency around 50 Hz agrees wi…”
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“For example, one pproach evokes visual experiences (“phosphenes”) via electrical timulation of primary visual cortex (V1) (Dobelle and Mladejovsky, 974; Schmidt et al., 1996; Bradley, 2004).”
BackgroundVadakkan, K. I. (2015) · SpringerPlus · doi:10.1186/s40064-015-1568-4 · Cited by 6
“When stimulation is delivered to the V1 layer of the striate cortex above the calcarine fissure, a visual percept of light is elicited in the lower part of the visual field and vice versa (Foerster 1931; Schmidt et al. 1996).”
MethodFernández, E., & Hoffmann, K. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74658-4_41 · Cited by 5
Oz, R., Edelman-Klapper, H., Margalit, S. N., & Slovin, H. (2022) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhac409 · Cited by 5
How to Restore Reading With Visual Prostheses
Sommerhalder, J. (2007) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-449-0_3 · Cited by 5
Technology and people with visual impairments: a 1997 update
Scadden, L. A. (1997) · Technology and Disability · doi:10.3233/tad-1997-6302 · Cited by 5
Findings from Chronic Optic Nerve and Cortical Stimulation
Schmidt, E. M. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0754-7_15 · Cited by 5
Self-citationBrain-Machine Interfaces: Restoring and Establishing Communication Channels
Rodenkirch, C., Schriver, B. J., & Wang, Q. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31433-4_8 · Cited by 5
“One group, in particular, had shown the feasibility of using ICMS to deliver high-resolution visual percepts by utilizing higher-density, penetrating MEAs with reduced power requirements (Schmidt et al. 1996 ).”
BackgroundNeural Interfacing: Forging the Human-Machine Connection
Coates, S. D. (2008) · Synthesis lectures on biomedical engineering · doi:10.2200/s00148ed1v01y200809bme022 · Cited by 5
A low-power imager and compression algorithms for a brain-machine visual prosthesis for the blind
Turicchia, L., O’Halloran, M., Kumar, D. P., & Sarpeshkar, R. (2008) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.797211 · Cited by 5
Activation of the visual cortex by Braille reading in blind subjects
Merabet, L. B., Amedi, A., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528999.003.0022 · Cited by 6
Chapter 19 The cerebellum as a neuronal prosthesis machine
Welsh, J. P., Schwarz, C., & Garbourg, Y. (2001) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(01)30020-1 · Cited by 5
A visual prosthesis based on Optic Nerve Stimulation: In vivo Electrophysiological Study in Rabbits
Li, L., Sun, M., Cao, P., Cai, C., Chai, X., Li, X., Chen, P., & Ren, Q. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-79039-6_15 · Cited by 5
Symptomatic and cryptogenic (probably symptomatic) focal epilepsies
Panayiotopoulos, C. P. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-84628-644-5_15 · Cited by 5
Mobility enhancement using simulated artificial human vision
Dowling, J. (2007) · Cited by 5
Preclinical testing of Neural Prostheses
McCreery, D. B. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118816028.ch6 · Cited by 5
Intracortical microstimulation in humans: a decade of safety and efficacyPreprint
Greenspon, C. M., Hobbs, T. G., Verbaarschot, C., Alamri, A. H., Shelchkova, N. D., Lienkämper, R., Ye, J., Simpson, T. W., Weiss, J. M., Weir, D. M., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.08.11.25332271 · Cited by 5
Alfaro, A., Soo, L., Wacławczyk, D., Ruiz, R. M., Grani, F., & Fernandez, E. (2025) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcaf504 · Cited by 5
“6 demonstrated that microstimulation via penetrating microelectrodes could address some limitations of earlier work.”
Neyazi, B., Schwabe, K., Alam, M., Krauss, J. K., & Nakamura, M. (2016) · Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy · doi:10.1016/j.jchemneu.2016.06.004 · Cited by 4
A portable neurostimulator circuit with anodic bias enhances stimulation injection capacity
Ersöz, A., Kim, I.-S., & Han, M. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac8fb6 · Cited by 4
COMPUTER-CONTROLLED NEUROSTIMULATION FOR A VISUAL IMPLANT
Romero, S., Morillas, C., Pelayo, F., & Fernández, E. (2008) · International Conference on Biomedical Electronics and Devices · doi:10.5220/0001051600840091 · Cited by 4
“Previous experiences have shown that electrical stimulation of cells in this layer evoke visual percepts, similar to stars in the night, which are called “phosphenes” (Schmidt, 1996).”
BackgroundA low-cost configurable multichannel cortical stimulator prototype
Johnson, G. D., & Krusienski, D. J. (2013) · International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering · doi:10.1109/ner.2013.6696016 · Cited by 4
Brain Machine-Interfaces for Sensory Systems
Fujikado, T. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-54598-9_10 · Cited by 4
Overstreet, C. K., Hellman, R. B., Wong, R. D. P., Santos, V. J., & Tillery, S. I. H. (2016) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2016.00091 · Cited by 4
“However, the repetition, order, and timing of stimulation on nearby electrodes can modify the sensations perceived in response to stimulation on a single electrode (Penfield and Boldrey, 1937; Penfield and Welch, 1949; Bak et al., 1990; Schmidt et al., 1996; Tehovnik et al., 2005).”
BackgroundEsquenazi, R., Meier, K., Beyeler, M., Boynton, G. M., & Fine, I. (2021) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.21.13.10 · Cited by 6
“…implants such as CortiVis and the Orion (Second Sight) convert visual input from a camera into electrical impulses that trigger an array of microelectrodes that stimulate retinal or visual cortical cells (Mills, Jalil, & Stanga, 2017; Schmidt et al., 1996; Weiland, Walston, & Humayun, 2016).”
BackgroundMultichannel stimulation module as a tool for animal studies on cortical neural prostheses
Hayashida, Y., Kameda, S., Umehira, Y., Ishikawa, S., & Yagi, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Medical Technology · doi:10.3389/fmedt.2022.927581 · Cited by 5
“, pulse duration and current amplitude) used in the animal studies are in agreement with those for inducing phosphenes by microstimulation in either blind or normal sighted human patients (13, 14, 23) and non-human primates (16, 29).”
BackgroundInfluentialPavloski, R. P. (2022) · Prosthesis · doi:10.3390/prosthesis4040049 · Cited by 4
Use-Dependent Inactivation of the Mouse Visual Cortex in Response to Microstimulation Train
Fukuda, S., Yoshida, K., Nomoto, T., Yagi, T., & Hayashida, Y. (2022) · E-Health and Bioengineering Conference (EHB) · doi:10.1109/ehb55594.2022.9991319 · Cited by 4
“The time course of this decrease appeared to be consistent with the disappearance of the stimulus-induced phosphenes in several hundred milliseconds during the train stimulation [1].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCao, P., Sun, J., Yan, Y., Chen, Y., Chai, X., Sun, X., Ren, Q., & Li, L. (2015) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-015-3121-0 · Cited by 4
Lozano, A., Suárez, J. S., Soto‐Sánchez, C., Garrigós, J., Martínez, J. J., Vicente, J. M. F., & Fernández-Jover, E. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19591-5_12 · Cited by 4
Proposed Intracortical vision prosthesis system for phosphene mapping and psychophysical studies
Kaskhedikar, G., Hu, Z., Dagnelie, G., & Troyk, P. R. (2013) · International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering · doi:10.1109/ner.2013.6696075 · Cited by 4
Siu, T. L. T., & Morley, J. W. (2008) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06342.x · Cited by 4
“obtained from directly stimulating the visual cortex in blind volunteers during experimental trials of a cortical visual prosthesis (Brindley & Lewin, 1968; Schmidt et al., 1996), or indirectly through transcranial magnetic stimulation (Cowey & Walsh, 2000; Gothe et al.”
MethodHigh‐voltage compliant microelectrode array drivers for intracortical microstimulation
Hasanuzzaman, M., Raut, R., & Sawan, M. (2015) · International Journal of Circuit Theory and Applications · doi:10.1002/cta.2099 · Cited by 4
“They have studied the visiotopic mapping between the stimulation sites and the phosphene positions in the visual field [9], the stimulation parameters [10], and chronic implantation of microelectrode arrays in the V1 area [11].”
BackgroundWaveform generator system to transcorneal stimulation based on a digital adaptive model
Robles-Camarillo, D., Niño-de-Rivera, L., Quiroz-Mercado, H., & López-Miranda, M. J. (2008) · International Conference on Electrical Engineering, Computing Science and Automatic Control (CCE) · doi:10.1109/iceee.2008.4723382 · Cited by 4
“This method has been used to evoke visual sensations (phosphenes) [8] [9] [10].”
MethodEfficient microstimulation of the brain: A parametric approach
Watson, M., Dancause, N., & Sawan, M. (2015) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2015.7318816 · Cited by 4
Effects of Transcranial Electrical Stimulation on Sensory Functions
Chaieb, L., Saiote, C., Paulus, W., & Antal, A. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-404704-4.00007-7 · Cited by 4
Micro-stimulator Design for Visual Prosthesis based on Optic Nerve Stimulation
Zhao, Y., Wang, J., Chai, X., & Ren, Q. (2006) · International Symposium on Biophotonics, Nanophotonics and Metamaterials · doi:10.1109/metamat.2006.335019 · Cited by 4
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Weitz, A. C., & Weiland, J. D. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8151-5_7 · Cited by 4
Direct and inverse solution for a stimulus adaptation problem using SVR
Brügger, D., Butovas, S., Bogdan, M., Schwarz, C., & Rosenstiel, W. (2008) · Publikation Server (Leipzig University) · Cited by 4
Josimovich, J. B., Soffronoff, P., Starkovsky, N. A., & Mueller‐Heubach, E. (1977) · PubMed · Cited by 4
Development of Microelectronic Visual Implants
Gerding, H., Taneri, S., Uhlig, C. E., & Krause, K. (2001) · Medical radiology · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-56439-0_7 · Cited by 4
Ziat, M., & Bensmaı̈a, S. J. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.55057-0 · Cited by 4
Local field potential phase modulates the evoked response to electrical stimulation in visual cortex
Allison-Walker, T., Hagan, M. A., Meikle, S. J., Price, N. S. C., & Wong, Y. T. (2025) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ada828 · Cited by 3
“While the stimulation used in this work is a single pulse event, traditional stimulation in a prosthesis is delivered as a pulse train, at a specific frequency, often chosen to be 200 Hz [1].”
Margalit, S. N., & Slovin, H. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-39808-w · Cited by 3
The Role of Scalp EEG Recordings During Cortical Visual Prosthesis Testing
Stephan, K., Troyk, P. R., Dagnelie, G., Cogan, S. F., Barry, M. P., Grant, P., Lane, F. J., Szlyk, J. P., McNulty, M. L., van Drongelen, W., et al. (2025) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1111/aor.15023 · Cited by 3
Optimization of sputtered iridium oxide microelectrodes for long-term intracortical stimulation
Schelles, M., Goyvaerts, L., Merken, L., Janssen, P., Ceyssens, F., & Kraft, M. D. (2025) · Biomedical Physics & Engineering Express · doi:10.1088/2057-1976/adfdec · Cited by 4
Lozano, A., Chen, X., Grouw, M. L., Li, B., Wang, F., van der Grinten, M., Soto‐Sánchez, C., Morales-Gregorio, A., Fernández, E., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2025) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2025.103019 · Cited by 6
Retinal prosthesis that incorporates the organization of the nerve fibre layer
FitzGibbon, T. (2017) · Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1111/ceo.12899 · Cited by 3
A novel simulation paradigm utilising MRI-derived phosphene maps for cortical prosthetic vision
Wang, H. Z., & Wong, Y. T. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aceca2 · Cited by 3
A Real-Time and Portable Bionic Eye Simulator
Josh, H., Yong, B., & Kleeman, L. (2013) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-38256-7_4 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Schmidt, E. M., Bak, M. J., Hambrecht, F. T., Kufta, C. V., O'Rourke, D. K., & Vallabhanath, P.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schmidt, E. M.
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 507-522
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2090285495
- Cited by
- 672
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 3.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine › Pain Management and Treatment
- Keywords
- visual prosthesis, intracortical microstimulation, visual cortex, phosphenes, blindness, glaucoma, two-point resolution, color perception, eye movements, threshold current, feasibility study, neuroprosthetics
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Blindness, Electric Stimulation, Female, Humans, Microelectrodes, Time Factors, Visual Cortex, Visual Perception
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