Dynamic Stimulation of Visual Cortex Produces Form Vision in Sighted and Blind Humans
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
Summary A visual cortical prosthesis (VCP) has long been proposed as a strategy for restoring useful vision to the blind, under the assumption that visual percepts of small spots of light produced with electrical stimulation of visual cortex (phosphenes) will combine into coherent percepts of visual forms, like pixels on a video screen. We tested an alternative strategy in which shapes were traced on the surface of visual cortex by stimulating electrodes in dynamic sequence. In both sighted and blind participants, dynamic stimulation enabled accurate recognition of letter shapes predicted by the brain’s spatial map of the visual world. Forms could be presented and recognized rapidly by blind participants, up to 86 forms per minute. These findings demonstrate that a brain prosthetic can produce coherent percepts of visual forms.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Dynamic electrical stimulation and current steering of visual cortex can produce coherent letter-like form percepts in both sighted and blind participants, unlike conventional static stimulation. Blind participants recognized these forms rapidly and reliably, suggesting a stimulation strategy for visual cortical prostheses.
Key findings
- Dynamic current steering created virtual electrodes between physical electrodes in blind participant 03–281; phosphene locations moved predictably along a line, and a dynamic sequence produced a percept described as a continuously drawn line with a continuity rating of 8/10.
- In sighted participant YBN, dynamic sequences corresponding to four letter-like forms were reproduced accurately; discrimination accuracy was 15/23 (66%) against a 25% chance rate, p = 10−4.
- In blind participant BAA, 23/28 (82%) drawings clustered correctly by stimulation sequence (p < 10−5), and verbal identification was 14/15 (93%) against 20% chance, p = 10−8.
- In blind participant 03–281, 36/40 (90%) drawings clustered correctly (p < 10−5), verbal identification was 37/40 (93%) against 25% chance, p = 10−15, and forms were delivered at up to 86 forms/min with 87% accuracy for two forms and 30 forms/min with 92% accuracy for three forms.
Methods
- Participants were three sighted individuals with intractable epilepsy (YBN, YAY, YBH) and two blind individuals (BAA, 03–281), all implanted with subdural electrodes over occipital cortex; testing occurred at Baylor College of Medicine and UCLA.
- Stimulation used biphasic pulses, typically 200 Hz with 100 µs per phase, and included monopolar and bipolar current steering; dynamic sequences varied current ratios across adjacent electrodes to create virtual electrodes and traced shapes over time.
- Percepts were measured by having participants draw phosphenes or letter-like forms on a touchscreen or paper, and by forced-choice verbal identification; analyses included binomial tests, multidimensional scaling, k-means clustering, and bootstrap shuffling.
Limitations
- The paper states that static stimulation could not be compared quantitatively with dynamic stimulation because simultaneous stimulation caused phosphenes to merge into unrecognizable percepts; for example, five electrodes produced only two large phosphenes in participant YBH.
- The paper states that blind participant BAA’s implanted device limited sequences to roughly 2 seconds per electrode and about 10 seconds per sequence, producing successive rather than smoothly dynamic phosphenes.
- The paper notes that surface electrodes required milliampere-level currents, whereas penetrating electrodes use microampere levels and may alter electrode interactions; it also tested only letter-like shapes. Evident in the text: the study includes only five participants with different devices and testing contexts, limiting generalizability.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
5 of 17 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Interpretationcitation
Dynamic stimulation may work by activating motion-processing circuits that in turn produce form perception.
“Dynamic stimulation may be an effective work-around for this limitation because it activates motion-processing circuits that in turn result in form perception, much as visual motion can produce form perception (Pavan et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Pavan et al., 2013 source
The Introduction (p. 1) says that motion and form signals interact in both directions and can cooperate when the visual system extracts a partially occluded object. That supports the general analogy, but the paper does not establish that dynamic stimulation activates motion-processing circuits that then produce form perception, or that it works around the citing paper’s stated limitation. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
With dynamic stimulation, changing the order in which the same electrodes were stimulated allowed for the perception of multiple letter forms.
“By comparison, with dynamic stimulation, simply changing the order in which the same electrodes were stimulated allowed for the perception of multiple letter forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
- Findingown data
In blind participant BAA, verbal identification of five patterns presented in random order was correct for 14/15 (93% vs 20% chance, p=10^-8).
“The participant correctly identified 14/15 of the patterns (93% correct vs. 20% chance rate, p = 10−8).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
- Findingown data
In their testing with sighted and blind participants, the conventional static stimulation paradigm was never able to evoke visual percepts of coherent forms.
“However, in our testing with sighted and blind participants, the conventional stimulation paradigm was never able to evoke visual percepts of coherent forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
- Findingown data
Blind participants could recognize forms presented rapidly, at rates up to 86 forms per minute.
“Forms could be presented and recognized rapidly by blind participants, up to 86 forms per minute.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
- Findingown data
35 of 48 stimulated electrodes were assigned to visual area V1 and 13 to visual area V2.
“35 of 48 stimulated electrodes were assigned to visual area V1 and the remaining 13 electrodes were assigned to visual area V2.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Dynamic stimulation allowed both sighted and blind participants to accurately recognize letter shapes that matched predictions from the brain's spatial map of the visual world.
“In both sighted and blind participants, dynamic stimulation enabled accurate recognition of letter shapes predicted by the brain’s spatial map of the visual world.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
- Findingown data
In blind participant 03-281, dynamic stimulation with current steering over five electrodes produced a percept of a continuous line (continuity rating 8/10) from (12.9°, 2.7°) to (3.2°, 1.8°).
“The participant reported that this stimulation pattern produced the percept of a “like a line being drawn” with a continuity rating of 8 out of 10, where 1 would be discrete phosphenes, and 10 would be a perfectly continuous line. The participant reported that the line began at (12.9°, 2.7°) and ended at (3.2°, 1.8°) as shown in Figure 3C.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
- Findingown data
Static stimulation was never able to produce a recognizable letter percept in any of their participants.
“In contrast, static stimulation was never able to produce a recognizable letter percept in any of our participants.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
- Findingown data
In sighted participant YAY, dynamic current steering conveyed the letter 'Z'.
“In sighted participant YAY, dynamic current steering was used to convey the letter “Z” (Figure 4H; Supplementary Video 1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
- Premisecitation
Electrical stimulation of visual cortex can produce a percept of a small flash of light, known as a phosphene.
“VCPs rely on the fact that stimulating visual cortex with electrical current can produce a percept of a small flash of light, known as a phosphene (Penfield and Rasmussen, 1950).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Penfield and Rasmussen, 1950
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
With only five or six electrodes, it would have been impossible to create a set of letter-like forms using static stimulation.
“With only five or six electrodes, it would have been impossible to create a set of letter-like forms using static stimulation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Dynamic variation of current on a rapid time scale might produce a percept of a phosphene moving continuously along a line.
“This suggests phosphenes could be created at additional intermediate locations by manipulating the applied current. Specifically, if the current varied dynamically on a rapid time scale, it might result in the percept of a phosphene moving continuously along a line.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
A brain prosthetic can produce coherent percepts of visual forms.
“These findings demonstrate that a brain prosthetic can produce coherent percepts of visual forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In most people with acquired blindness, only the eyes or optic nerves are damaged, leaving the visual cortex intact.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
- Premisecitation
Penetrating electrodes require much less current to evoke phosphenes, on the order of microamps.
“Penetrating electrodes require much less current to evoke phosphenes, on the order of microamps (Bak et al., 1990).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bak et al., 1990 source
- Premisecitation
An individual with an implanted cortical visual prosthetic recognized characters in a visual braille alphabet at 30 per minute with 85% accuracy.
“An individual with an implanted cortical visual prosthetic was able to recognize characters in a visual braille alphabet at a rate of 30 per minute with 85% accuracy (Dobelle et al., 1976)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Dobelle et al., 1976 source
- May combine two claims. 21
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
- The quote only partly states this claim. 5
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationIn early VCP testing and in the authors' replication with sighted participants, stimulating multiple electrodes produced only isolated phosphenes that did not combine into coherent forms.
“In early testing with VCPs, stimulation of multiple electrodes produced only percepts of multiple isolated phosphenes which did not combine into coherent forms (Dobelle et al., 1976; Schmidt et al., 1996), a finding we replicated in sighted participants implanted with intracranial electrodes for the pre-surgical evaluation of epilepsy (Bosking et al., 2018a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Dobelle et al., 1976 source
- cites Schmidt et al., 1996 source
The Percepts from multiple phosphenes and Pattern recognition sections (pages unavailable in our copy) report that simultaneous stimulation produced six touching phosphenes in a vertical line, which the subject considered suitable to represent a letter or part of one. That conflicts with the claim that the phosphenes remained only isolated percepts that did not form coherent shapes. The citing authors’ replication in sighted participants is their own finding, not a finding attributed to Schmidt et al. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Bosking et al., 2018a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationDynamic stimulation and dynamic current steering for visual cortical prosthetics build on earlier efforts to develop neural stimulation strategies for reading in neural information in human neuroprosthetics.
“Dynamic stimulation and dynamic current steering for VCPs also build on previous efforts to create optimal neural stimulation strategies in human neuroprosthetics which aim to ‘read in’ neural information (Roelfsema et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Roelfsema et al., 2018 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAn individual with a retinal prosthetic recognized 40 braille letters per minute with 89% accuracy.
“while an individual with a retinal prosthetic recognized 40 braille letters per minute with 89% accuracy (Lauritzen et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Lauritzen et al., 2012 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAn earlier study found no qualitative difference in phosphenes generated by V1 and V2 identified within individual subjects using BOLD fMRI retinotopic mapping.
“These findings are consistent with an earlier study that found no qualitative difference in the phosphenes generated by V1 and V2 identified within individual subjects using BOLD fMRI retinotopic mapping (Murphey et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Murphey et al., 2009 source
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn blind participant 03-281, dynamic stimulation of six electrodes produced letter-like shapes; 36/40 (90%) correctly clustered (p<10^-5); verbally identified 37/40 (93% vs 25% chance, p=10^-15).
“Without instruction, the participant was able to reproduce letter-like shapes that corresponded to each sequence (Supplementary Video 3). To assess reliability, the participant received repeated presentations of different dynamic sequences, drawing the perceived pattern following each trial. The shapes were reliable across repeated trials of the same stimulation sequence but differed across”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn blind participant 03-281, forms were accurately identified at a rate of 86 forms per minute: 26/30 (87% vs 50% chance, p=10^-4) for two forms.
“In a sequence of 30 trials, the participant accurately identified 26 forms (87% correct vs. chance rate of 50%, p = 10−4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn blind participant 03-281, forms were accurately identified at a rate of 30 forms per minute: 33/36 (92% vs 33% chance, p=10^-12) for three forms.
“In a sequence of 36 trials, 33 forms were correctly identified (92% correct vs. chance rate of 33%, p = 10−12).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn blind participant BAA, dynamic stimulation of five electrodes produced letter-like shapes that corresponded to each sequence; shapes were reliable across repeated trials; 23/28 (82%) letters correctly clustered (p<10^-5).
“Without instruction, the participant was able to reproduce letter-like shapes that corresponded to each sequence (Figure 5D; Supplementary Video 2). To assess reliability, the participant received randomly interleaved presentations of different dynamic sequences, drawing the perceived pattern following each trial. The shapes were reliable across repeated trials of the same stimulation sequence but”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn sighted participant YBN, dynamic stimulation of a 24-electrode array produced letter percepts that corresponded to predicted shapes, with 4AFC performance of 15/23 (66% vs 25% chance, p=10^-4).
“Following stimulation, the participant was able to easily reproduce each of the four letters on a touchscreen, and there was a striking correspondence between the predicted and actual shape of the perceived letters (Figure 4D). The participant performed well above chance in a four alternative forced choice-task discriminating between stimulation patterns (15/23, accuracy of 66% vs. chance rate of”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn blind participant 03-281, stimulating electrode F03 alone produced phosphenes more centrally than F01, with center at (5.4°, 2.2°) and variability (0.9°, 0.6°).
“In the fifth stimulation condition, a base current of 4 mA was delivered only to the more posterior electrode (F03) with no current delivered to F01 (F01: 0%; F03:100%). Consistent with the known retinotopic organization of visual cortex, the F03 phosphenes were located more centrally than the F01 phosphenes, with center (5.4°, 2.2°) and variability (0.9°,0.6°).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn blind participant 03-281, stimulating electrode F01 alone produced a phosphene at a mean location of azimuth 13.3° and elevation 2.1°, with variability ellipse axes of 1.0° and 0.5°.
“In the first stimulation condition, a 100 ms pulse train with a base current of 3.6 mA was delivered to the more anterior electrode (F01) with no current delivered to electrode F03 (F01: 100%; F03:0%). During delivery of the pulse train, the participant reported the percept of a single phosphene located in the upper right visual field and recorded its location on the touchscreen. Across ten trials”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe phosphenes created by stimulating the physical and virtual electrodes lay on a horizontal line at 2° elevation, with no overlap between the phosphenes from the two physical and three virtual electrodes.
“When plotted (Figure 2D), the location of the phosphenes created by stimulating the physical and virtual electrodes lay on a horizontal line at 2° elevation with no overlap between the phosphenes created by stimulating the two physical and three virtual electrodes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataStatic stimulation of multiple electrodes produced merging of phosphenes, resulting in fewer large phosphenes (e.g., 2 instead of 5) and inability to produce recognizable forms.
“For instance, in participant YBH, we expected that simultaneous stimulation of 5 different electrodes would produce 5 separate phosphenes, which could conceivably be interpreted as a form. Instead, the participant reported seeing only 2 large phosphenes, too few to be recognizable as a shape. Stimulating a different set of 5 electrodes also resulted in the percept of 2 large phosphenes, albeit in”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn blind participant 03-281, current steering with varying proportions to F01 and F03 produced phosphenes at intermediate locations between the two physical electrodes, with centers and scatters: condition 2 center (11.4°, 2.1°) scatter (0.5°,0.3°); condition 3 center (9.8°, 2.1°) scatter (0.4°,0.3°); condition 4 center (8.0°, 2.2°) scatter (0.5°,0.3°).
“In the second condition, 80% of the base current was delivered to electrode F01 and 50% of the base current was delivered to F03. As hypothesized, this generated phosphenes located intermediate to those generated by stimulating the two physical electrodes but closer to the F01 phosphenes, with center (11.4°, 2.1°) and scatter (0.5°,0.3°). In the third condition, equivalent currents were delivered”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor blind participant BAA, technical limitations meant stimulation sequences could only be delivered at ~2 seconds per electrode (~10 seconds per sequence), resulting in percept of successive phosphenes rather than a dynamic shape, but still allowed accurate integration of discrete phosphene sequences as uniquely recognizable letter forms.
“For blind participant BAA, technical limitations of the implanted device meant that stimulation sequences could only be delivered at a rate of ~2 seconds per electrode (~10 seconds per sequence) resulting in the percept of successive phosphenes rather than a dynamic shape. Nevertheless, even this slow rate of dynamic stimulation allowed the participant to accurately integrate discrete phosphene”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenUsing the same number of electrodes, dynamic stimulation evoked a wide variety of patterns that could be immediately reproduced and identified by participants without training.
“Using the same number of electrodes, the dynamic stimulation paradigm was able to evoke a wide variety of patterns that could be immediately reproduced and identified by the participant without any training.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenIn every participant, the epileptic seizure focus was found to be located away from visual cortex.
“For all participants, the epilepsy seizure focus was determined to be distant from visual cortex.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataParticipant 03-281, who is blind, lost sight at age 46 and had no light perception.
“Blind participant 03–281 (male, age 58) acquired blindness at age 46 and had no light perception.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenAll experiments in this study used participants implanted with surface electrodes, which required stimulation currents on the order of milliamps.
“All experiments in the present manuscript were conducted on participants implanted with surface electrodes, necessitating current levels on the order of milliamps.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataParticipant BAA, who is blind, lost sight at age 27 and retained only minimal light perception.
“Blind participant BAA acquired blindness at age 27 and had minimal residual light perception.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThe research protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Boards at BCM and UCLA, and every participant provided written informed consent.
“The Institutional Review Boards of BCM and UCLA approved all research protocols, and all participants gave written informed consent.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationBecause visual cortex is retinotopically organized, placing multiple electrodes at different locations in this map creates multiple phosphenes, each at a predictable visual field location.
“Because of the retinotopic organization of visual cortex, implanting an array of multiple electrodes at different locations within this cortical map allows for the creation of multiple phosphenes, with each stimulated electrode contributing a phosphene at one predictable visual field location (Bosking et al., 2017a; Tehovnik and Slocum, 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Bosking et al., 2017a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Tehovnik and Slocum, 2013 source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationDynamic stimulation reduces phosphene interaction and coalescence, increasing the effective spatial resolution of the generated patterns.
“Dynamic stimulation seems to decrease the likelihood of this happening, increasing the effective spatial resolution of the patterns that can be generated.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bosking et al., 2018b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBecause penetrating electrodes use less current, they will stimulate a smaller cortical volume, which alters how likely adjacent electrodes are to interact in both static and dynamic paradigms.
“This reduced current will activate a smaller volume of cortex, changing the likelihood of interactions between adjacent electrodes in both static and dynamic stimulation paradigms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenDynamic stimulation and dynamic current steering are general-purpose paradigms that could be combined with any of these technologies to restore useful vision in blind people and to allow more efficient information transfer in other cortical prosthetics.
“As general-purpose stimulation paradigms, dynamic stimulation and dynamic current steering maybe be used in combination with any of these technologies to help restore useful visual function to blind people, and to permit more efficient transformation of information within other cortical prosthetic applications.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCurrent steering has been used in retinal implants, cochlear implants, and deep brain stimulators, but has not yet found clinical application in the cerebral cortex.
“For instance, current steering has been applied both in retinal implants (Dumm et al., 2014; Matteucci et al., 2013), cochlear implants (Firszt et al., 2007; Kalkman et al., 2016) and deep brain stimulators (Gross and McDougal, 2013) although it has not yet found clinical applications in the cerebral cortex.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataDuring receptive field mapping, a letter detection task at the fixation point was used to keep participants fixating.
“To ensure fixation, participants performed a letter detection task at the fixation point.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPassing current through two adjacent electrodes creates a virtual electrode midway between them, and varying the current allows the virtual electrode to be positioned along the line segment between the two physical electrodes.
“This is accomplished through a technique known as current steering: if current is passed through two adjacent electrodes, a virtual electrode is created midway between them (Firszt et al., 2007). Varying the amount of current delivered to adjacent electrodes allows the virtual electrode to be positioned at different locations along the line segment between the two physical electrodes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Firszt et al., 2007 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductown dataIn the blind participants, multidimensional scaling assessed how reliably the percepts differed across electrical stimulation sequences.
“In the blind participants, we used multidimensional scaling (MDS) to assess the reliability of differences between the percepts elicited by different electrical stimulation sequences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Participants' verbal reports and drawings accurately reflect their visual percepts.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenDuring discrimination testing, the sequences were delivered in a pseudo-random order.
“Sequences were presented in pseudo-random order.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenParticipant 03-281 was tested as part of the clinical trial "Early Feasibility Study of the Orion Visual Cortical Prosthesis System" (NCT03344848).
“Blind participant 03–281 was tested under the auspices of a clinical trial entitled “Early Feasibility Study of the Orion Visual Cortical Prosthesis System” (NCT03344848).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
In most people with acquired blindness, only the eyes or optic nerves are damaged, leaving the visual cortex intact.
“In most participants with acquired blindness, only the eyes or optic nerves are damaged.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants' verbal and drawn reports accurately reflect their visual percepts.
“The participant reported their percept by drawing the perceived location of the phosphene on a computer touchscreen.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants' verbal reports and drawings accurately reflect their visual percepts.
“In each trial, participants verbally reported whether they experienced a localized, brief, visual percept similar to a flash of light.”
The paper relies on this without support.
How quickly the current ratio changes controls how fast the pattern is drawn on the cortex and how dynamic the percept appears.
“The rate of change of the current ratio determines how rapidly the pattern is “drawn” on the cortex and how dynamic the pattern is perceived to be.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Current steering produces virtual electrodes at positions between the physical electrodes, with the current ratio setting their location.
“Monopolar dynamic current steering was used to create virtual electrodes in between the physical electrodes on the array by using current steering.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Having the epilepsy seizure focus distant from visual cortex ensures that the observed stimulation effects are not confounded by epileptogenic activity.
“For all participants, the epilepsy seizure focus was determined to be distant from visual cortex.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Current prosthesis users report seeing highly distorted phosphenes that vary in shape across subjects and electrodes and often fail to assemble into more complex percepts.
“In contrast, current prosthesis users report seeing highly distorted phosphenes, which vary in shape across subjects as well as electrodes and often fail to assemble into more complex percepts (Wilke et al., 2011; Beyeler et al., 2019; Beauchamp et al., 2020; Erickson-Davis and Korzybska, 2021; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards a <i>Smart Bionic Eye</i> : AI-powered artificial vision for the treatment of incurable blindness (2022) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
The Introduction and Discussion (page unavailable) report that conventional stimulation produced isolated phosphenes that did not combine into coherent forms in sighted and blind participants. The paper does not establish the claim that current prosthesis users see highly distorted phosphenes whose shapes vary across subjects and electrodes. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThis 2-point resolution is closer than the 500 μm resolution reported previously with a single electrode pair of gold wire electrodes, and about 5 times closer than has been achieved with surface electrodes.
“This 2-point resolution is closer than the 500 μ m resolution reported previously with a single electrode pair of gold wire electrodes (10), and about 5 times closer than has been achieved with surface electrodes (2-5, 7).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
The Conclusions (page unavailable) say the experiments used surface electrodes, and STAR Methods (Experimental Model and Subject Details; page unavailable) report a 2 mm center-to-center spacing for one array. The paper does not identify that spacing as an achieved two-point resolution or establish the claimed fivefold comparison. The separate 500 μm gold-wire claim is attached to a different citation. (LLM, conf=0.81)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredElectrical stimulation of individual electrodes elicited phosphenes with locations that corresponded to the retinotopic map in the visual cortex.
“As expected, electrical stimulation of individual electrodes elicited phosphenes with locations that corresponded to the retinotopic map in the visual cortex (7, 8).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
When multiple surface electrodes were stimulated at the same time, the perceptions typically merged into larger phosphenes, making shape recognition practically impossible.
“However, when multiple electrodes were stimulated at the same time, the perceptions typically merged into larger phosphenes, making shape recognition practically impossible.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
The currents reported for evoking perception with surface electrodes were on the order of several milliamperes.
“Moreover, the currents reported for evoking perception were on the order of several milliamperes (7).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
Dynamic phosphene encoding could prove useful to expand the encoded information along the temporal domain.
“Moreover, besides acquiring optimal control over the transfer function from stimulation to phosphenes, dynamic phosphene encoding could also prove useful to expand the encoded information along the temporal domain (Beauchamp et al., 2020).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Neurostimulation hardware and stimulation protocols are continuously being improved.
“Neurostimulation hardware and stimulation protocols are continuously being improved (Beauchamp et al., 2020), and clinical trials with cortical visual neuroprostheses are often limited to small numbers of blind volunteers (Fernández and Normann, 2017; Troyk, 2017).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Percepts resulting from multi-electrode stimulation of visual cortex cannot be explained by a summative model based on single-electrode phosphenes.
“more recent work has highlighted that the percepts resulting from multi-electrode stimulation cannot be explained by a summative model based on single-electrode phosphenes (Beauchamp et al., 2020; Barry et al., 2020; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards a <i>Smart Bionic Eye</i> : AI-powered artificial vision for the treatment of incurable blindness (2022) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Electro-tactile devices are advantageous due to their small size, light weight, and high resolution.
“Alternatively, electro-tactile (ET) devices are advantageous due to its small size, light weight, and high resolution (9–12).”
From Self-powered electro-tactile system for virtual tactile experiences (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
The timing of visual cortex stimulation can be finely tuned to produce more complex visual perceptions.
“A recent study also demonstrated that the timing of the stimulation could be finely tuned to produce more complex visual perceptions [4].”
From Eye movements and the perceived location of phosphenes generated by intracranial primary visual cortex stimulation in the blind (2021) · cites this paper as [4]
Visual sensations (phosphenes) in blind patients can be produced using neurostimulators approved for long-term implantation.
“Additionally, it has been recently demonstrated that visual sensations in blind patients, referred to as a phosphenes, can be produced using neurostimulators that are approved for long-term implantation [4,5].”
From Eye movements and the perceived location of phosphenes generated by intracranial primary visual cortex stimulation in the blind (2021) · cites this paper as [4]
Cortical prostheses must use dynamic stimulation for pattern vision, suggesting that the pattern is presented over a time window and not simultaneously.
“The recent finding that cortical prostheses must use dynamic stimulation for pattern vision suggests that the pattern is presented over a time window and not simultaneously [4].”
From Eye movements and the perceived location of phosphenes generated by intracranial primary visual cortex stimulation in the blind (2021) · cites this paper as [4]
Stimulation parameters do not seem to systematically affect the localization of phosphenes.
“Of note, while changes in frequency and amplitude change perception of size and intensity of phosphenes, stimulation parameters do not seem to systematically affect the localization of phosphenes, as evidenced by our previous report of the reproducibility of phosphenes over time across stimulation parameters [4,5].”
From Eye movements and the perceived location of phosphenes generated by intracranial primary visual cortex stimulation in the blind (2021) · cites this paper as [4]
One study deployed a dynamic stimulation approach that demonstrated impressive performance in human participants.
“Electrical stimulation of the visual cortex has also been tested for vision restoration (Chen et al., 2020), and one study (Beauchamp et al., 2020) deployed a dynamic stimulation approach that demonstrated impressive performance in human participants.”
From Precise control of neural activity using dynamically optimized electrical stimulation (2024) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Both studies only considered simple visual stimuli which can be described by lines (such as English letters and numbers) or a few dots.
“However, both studies only considered simple visual stimuli which can be described by lines (such as English letters and numbers) or a few dots.”
From Precise control of neural activity using dynamically optimized electrical stimulation (2024) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Electrical stimulation of the visual cortex has been tested for vision restoration.
“Electrical stimulation of the visual cortex has also been tested for vision restoration (Chen et al., 2020), and one study (Beauchamp et al., 2020) deployed a dynamic stimulation approach that demonstrated impressive performance in human participants.”
From Precise control of neural activity using dynamically optimized electrical stimulation (2024) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Subjects can identify simple forms when multiple electrodes are stimulated in sequence even though those same shapes are uninterpretable when electrodes are simultaneously stimulated.
“Recently, Beauchamp et al.25 showed that subjects can identify simple forms when multiple electrodes are stimulated in sequence even though those same shapes are uninterpretable when electrodes are simultaneously stimulated.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [25]
Stimulating several electrodes at once made the extent to which the phosphenes merged into recognizable shapes unpredictable, and they usually fused into larger phosphenes so that shapes could not be recognized.
“However, when multiple electrodes were stimulated at the same time, the degree to which the phosphenes combined into recognizable shapes was unpredictable. Typically, they merged into larger phosphenes, making shape recognition impossible.”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Stimulating single electrodes electrically produced phosphenes whose positions matched the retinotopic map of the visual cortex.
“As expected, electrical stimulation of individual electrodes elicited phosphenes with locations that corresponded to the retinotopic map in the visual cortex.”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Stimulating two electrodes together, each at 70% of the base current, produces a virtual phosphene located between the two individual phosphene positions.
“The surprising result was that concurrent stimulation of both A and B, both at 70% of the base current, elicits a ''virtual'' phosphene at a point between LA and LB.”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
The subjects easily recognized and reproduced the shape written to their visual cortex.
“the surprising result was that the subjects readily recognized and reproduced the shape that had been written to their visual cortex.”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Changing the current proportions allowed the position of the virtual phosphene to be steered along a line between the two phosphene positions.
“With different current proportions, they could control the location of the virtual phosphene on a line through LA and LB.”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Rapid successive stimulation produces a series of phosphenes that traces the outline of letters.
“phosphenes that traces out the shape of letters (Figure 1).”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Both sighted and blind subjects recognized the letters.
“Both seeing and blind subjects recognized letters”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al., 2020
Visual perception and performance in solving visual tasks could improve with learning and time.
“Indeed, researchers demonstrated that visual perception and performance in solving visual tasks could improve with learning and time [20,98].”
From Advances in visual prostheses: engineering and biological challenges (2022) · cites this paper as [98]
Dynamic current steering has been investigated and proved to be a helpful strategy for recognising shapes.
“Stimulation approaches, such as dynamic current steering, have been investigated and proved to be a helpful strategy for recognising shapes [91,98]”
From Advances in visual prostheses: engineering and biological challenges (2022) · cites this paper as [98]
Sequential activation of electrodes is an attractive strategy that allows form vision in patients.
“The sequential activation of electrodes is an attractive strategy allowing form vision in patients [91,98].”
From Advances in visual prostheses: engineering and biological challenges (2022) · cites this paper as [98]
When multiple surface electrodes were stimulated simultaneously in two blind individuals, phosphenes fused into larger formless perceptions, making shape recognition impossible.
“These later findings have recently been confirmed by Beauchamp et al. (2020), who implanted two different types of electrodes on the surface of the visual cortex of two blind individuals and found that when multiple electrodes were stimulated simultaneously, phosphenes fused into larger formless perceptions, making shape recognition impossible.”
From Toward Long-Term Communication With the Brain in the Blind by Intracortical Stimulation: Challenges and Future Prospects (2020) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al. (2020)
Visual neuroprostheses have been implanted in the retina, optic nerve, and visual cortex of human subjects.
“To date, visual neuroprostheses have been implanted in the retina (Humayun et al. 2012; Stingl et al. 2013; Fujikado et al. 2016; Petoe et al. 2021; Barnes et al. 2016; Palanker et al. 2022; Xu et al. 2021), optic nerve (Veraart et al. 2003), and visual cortex of human subjects (Beauchamp et al. 2020; Fernández et al. 2021).”
From Sequential epiretinal stimulation improves discrimination in simple shape discrimination tasks only (2022) · cites this paper as Beauchamp et al. 2020
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Screening charge limits conflict with the stated pulse trains
MajorAt 200 Hz, even the shorter 200 ms train contains 40 pulses. At the stated maximum currents, their 0.1 ms cathodic phases alone deliver 16 μC for sighted participants or 30 μC for blind participants, exceeding the stated per-trial maxima.
“Currents tested ranged from 0.3 – 4.0 mA in sighted participants and up to 7.5 mA in blind participants, with maximum charge delivered per screening trial of 4 μC for sighted and 9 μC for blind.”
“Electrical stimulation consisted of a train of biphasic pulses (−/+), with 0.1 ms pulse duration per phase, delivered at a frequency of 200 Hz, with an overall stimulus train duration of 200 or 300 ms.”
Checkerboard frequency counts checks as cycles
MinorFive alternating checks across 2° give 2.5 checks per degree. Because a black-and-white cycle contains two checks, the spatial frequency is 1.25 cycles per degree, not 2.5.
Reported 2.5 · recomputed 1.25
“Each checkerboard subtended 2° and contained a five-by-five grid of black and white checks, resulting in a spatial frequency of 2.5 cycles per degree.”
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“Advances in technology, including electrical stimulation with high-density grids of electrodes placed on the cortical surface (Khodagholy et al., 2015) or penetrating into the cortex (Rousche and Normann, 1998) and non-electrical stimulation with optogenetic (Deisseroth, 2015), magnetothermal (Chen et al.”
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“Our work is related to previous work on form vision with retinal (Klauke et al., 2011; Rizzo et al., 2003a, 2003b; Shivdasani et al., 2017; Zrenner et al., 2011) and cortical visual prostheses (Dobelle et al.”
ResultWireless magnetothermal deep brain stimulation
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BackgroundResultChronic recording capability of the Utah Intracortical Electrode Array in cat sensory cortex
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“, 2015) or penetrating into the cortex (Rousche and Normann, 1998) and non-electrical stimulation with optogenetic (Deisseroth, 2015), magnetothermal (Chen et al.”
BackgroundThe Cerebral Cortex of Man: A Clinical Study of Localization of Function
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“Braille” reading by a blind volunteer by visual cortex stimulation
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“An individual with an implanted cortical visual prosthetic was able to recognize characters in a visual braille alphabet at a rate of 30 per minute with 85%accuracy (Dobelle et al., 1976), while an individual with a retinal prosthetic recognized 40 braille letters per minute with 89% accuracy (Lauritzen et al.”
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Origins of the specialization for letters and numbers in ventral occipitotemporal cortex
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Self-citationStimulation with a Wireless Intraocular Epiretinal Implant Elicits Visual Percepts in Blind Humans
Klauke, S., Goertz, M., Rein, S., Hoehl, D., Thomas, U., Eckhorn, R., Bremmer, F., & Wächtler, T. (2010) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.09-4410 · Cited by 162 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Our work is related to previous work on form vision with retinal (Klauke et al., 2011; Rizzo et al., 2003a, 2003b; Shivdasani et al., 2017; Zrenner et al., 2011) and cortical visual prostheses (Dobelle et al.”
ResultReceptive fields in human visual cortex mapped with surface electrodes
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Self-citationCurrent steering creates additional pitch percepts in adult cochlear implant recipients
Firszt, J. B., Koch, D. B., Downing, M., & Litvak, L. (2007) · Otology & Neurotology · doi:10.1097/01.mao.0000281803.36574.bc · Cited by 150 · cited 2× · see citing works
“technique known as current steering: if current is passed through two adjacent electrodes, a virtual electrode is created midway between them (Firszt et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodToward the development of a cortically based visual neuroprosthesis
Normann, R. A., Greger, B. A., House, P., Romero, S. F., Pelayo, F., & Fernandez, E. (2009) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/6/3/035001 · Cited by 143 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Conclusions Our work represents the continuation of decades of stimulating human and non-human primate visual cortex toward the goal of building a cortical visual prosthetic (Bak et al., 1990; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Davis et al., 2012; DeYoe et al., 1989; Normann et al., 2009; Schiller and Tehovnik, 2008; Schmidt e…”
BackgroundMethodWandell, B. A., Rauschecker, A. M., & Yeatman, J. D. (2011) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100434 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Perceiving electrical stimulation of identified human visual areas
Murphey, D. K., Maunsell, J. H. R., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0804998106 · Cited by 109 · cited 1× · see citing works
“These findings are consistent with an earlier study that found no qualitative difference in the phosphenes generated by V1 and V2 identified within individual subjects using BOLD fMRI retinotopic mapping (Murphey et al., 2009).”
ResultSelf-citationMind Reading and Writing: The Future of Neurotechnology
Roelfsema, P. R., Denys, D., & Klink, P. C. (2018) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.04.001 · Cited by 107 · cited 9× · see citing works
“This has inspired hope for the development of a visual cortical prosthetic (VCP), a device that would bypass the eyes and optic nerve, transmitting visual information from a camera directly into the visual cortex (Bosking et al., 2017a; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Christie et al., 2016; Lewis et al., 2015, 2016; Najarpo…”
BackgroundInfluentialLewis, P. M., & Rosenfeld, J. V. (2016) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2015.08.038 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Beyeler, M., Rokem, A., Boynton, G. M., & Fine, I. (2017) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aa795e · Cited by 102 · cited 1× · see citing works
“activity pattern that may impair perception (Beyeler et al., 2017).”
A cross-validated cytoarchitectonic atlas of the human ventral visual stream
Rosenke, M., Weiner, K. S., Barnett, M. A., Zilles, K., Amunts, K., Goebel, R., & Grill-Spector, K. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.02.040 · Cited by 97 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Identity of Stimulated Visual Areas A human cytoarchitectonic atlas (Rosenke et al., 2018) was morphed to each participant’s cortical surface model and used to evaluate the probable identity of the identified visual area underlying each electrode.”
MethodBosking, W. H., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2017) · Annual Review of Vision Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-vision-111815-114525 · Cited by 93 · cited 3× · see citing works
“For 50 years, attempts have been made to restore vision to blind participants with electrical stimulation of the intact visual cerebral cortex (Bosking et al., 2017a; Lewis et al., 2015, 2016; Najarpour Foroushani et al., 2018; Normann et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationDavis, T. S., Parker, R. A., House, P. A., Bagley, E. E., Wendelken, S., Normann, R. A., & Greger, B. E. (2012) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/9/6/065003 · Cited by 91 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Conclusions Our work represents the continuation of decades of stimulating human and non-human primate visual cortex toward the goal of building a cortical visual prosthetic (Bak et al., 1990; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Davis et al., 2012; DeYoe et al., 1989; Normann et al., 2009; Schiller and Tehovnik, 2008; Schmidt e…”
BackgroundTorab, K., Davis, T. S., Warren, D. J., House, P. A., Normann, R. A., & Greger, B. (2011) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/8/3/035001 · Cited by 90 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Conclusions Our work represents the continuation of decades of stimulating human and non-human primate visual cortex toward the goal of building a cortical visual prosthetic (Bak et al., 1990; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Davis et al., 2012; DeYoe et al., 1989; Normann et al., 2009; Schiller and Tehovnik, 2008; Schmidt e…”
BackgroundAdvances in implantable bionic devices for blindness: a review
Lewis, P., Ayton, L. N., Guymer, R. H., Lowery, A. J., Blamey, P. J., Allen, P. J., Luu, C. D., & Rosenfeld, J. V. (2016) · ANZ Journal of Surgery · doi:10.1111/ans.13616 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Schiller, P. H., & Tehovnik, E. J. (2008) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p6100 · Cited by 85 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Conclusions Our work represents the continuation of decades of stimulating human and non-human primate visual cortex toward the goal of building a cortical visual prosthetic (Bak et al., 1990; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Davis et al., 2012; DeYoe et al., 1989; Normann et al., 2009; Schiller and Tehovnik, 2008; Schmidt e…”
BackgroundCurrent steering in retinal stimulation via a quasimonopolar stimulation paradigm
Matteucci, P. B., Chen, S. C., Tsai, D., Dodds, C. W. D., Dokos, S., Morley, J. W., Lovell, N. H., & Suaning, G. J. (2013) · Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.13-11653 · Cited by 79 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For instance, current steering has been applied both in retinal implants (Dumm et al., 2014; Matteucci et al., 2013), cochlear implants (Firszt et al.”
BackgroundSaturation in phosphene size with increasing current levels delivered to human visual cortex
Bosking, W. H., Sun, P., Ozker, M., Pei, X., Foster, B. L., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2017) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2896-16.2017 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationThe neural bases of prosopagnosia and pure alexia: recent insights from functional neuroimaging
Kleinschmidt, A. K., & Cohen, L. (2006) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/01.wco.0000236619.89710.ee · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Virtual electrodes by current steering in retinal prostheses
Dumm, G., Fallon, J. B., Williams, C. E., & Shivdasani, M. N. (2014) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.14-15391 · Cited by 63 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For instance, current steering has been applied both in retinal implants (Dumm et al., 2014; Matteucci et al., 2013), cochlear implants (Firszt et al.”
BackgroundCortical visual prostheses: From microstimulation to functional percept
Najarpour Foroushani, A., Pack, C. C., & Sawan, M. (2018) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aaa904 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Augmented reality powers a cognitive assistant for the blind
Liu, Y., Stiles, N. R. B., & Meister, M. (2018) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.37841 · Cited by 61 · cited 1× · see citing works
“used to give blind participants a rapid outline of salient objects in their environment or to provide cues for navigation (Liu et al., 2018).”
MethodContemporary approaches to visual prostheses
Mirochnik, R. M., & Pezaris, J. S. (2019) · Military Medical Research · doi:10.1186/s40779-019-0206-9 · Cited by 58 · cited 9× · see citing works
“This has inspired hope for the development of a visual cortical prosthetic (VCP), a device that would bypass the eyes and optic nerve, transmitting visual information from a camera directly into the visual cortex (Bosking et al., 2017a; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Christie et al., 2016; Lewis et al., 2015, 2016; Najarpo…”
BackgroundInfluentialIntroducing the Monash vision group's cortical prosthesis
Lowery, A. J. (2013) · 2013 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.2013.6738316 · Cited by 45 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Recent advances in wireless microelectronics have renewed interest in VCPs, with at least four neuroengineering groups currently developing devices that are either in or rapidly approaching the clinical trial stage (Lowery, 2013; Mirochnik and Pezaris, 2019; Roelfsema et al., 2018; Troyk, 2017).”
BackgroundThe Intracortical Visual Prosthesis Project
Troyk, P. R. (2017) · Artificial Vision · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41876-6_16 · Cited by 45 · cited 10× · see citing works
“This has inspired hope for the development of a visual cortical prosthetic (VCP), a device that would bypass the eyes and optic nerve, transmitting visual information from a camera directly into the visual cortex (Bosking et al., 2017a; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Christie et al., 2016; Lewis et al., 2015, 2016; Najarpo…”
BackgroundInfluential(1982) · PubMed · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Technological Advances in the Surgical Treatment of Movement Disorders
Gross, R. E., & McDougal, M. E. (2013) · Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s11910-013-0371-2 · Cited by 40 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, 2016), and deep brain stimulators (Gross and McDougal, 2013), although it has not yet found clinical applications in the cerebral cortex.”
BackgroundKalkman, R. K., Briaire, J. J., & Frijns, J. H. M. (2016) · Network Computation in Neural Systems · doi:10.3109/0954898x.2016.1171412 · Cited by 38 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, 2013), cochlear implants (Firszt et al., 2007; Kalkman et al., 2016), and deep brain stimulators (Gross and McDougal, 2013), although it has not yet found clinical applications in the cerebral cortex.”
BackgroundShivdasani, M. N., Sinclair, N. C., Gillespie, L. N., Petoe, M. A., Titchener, S. A., Fallon, J. B., Perera, T., Pardinas-Diaz, D., Barnes, N. M., Blamey, P. J., et al. (2017) · Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.16-21311 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Electrical induction of vision
Tehovnik, E. J., & Slocum, W. M. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.012 · Cited by 33 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Because of the retinotopic organization of the visual cortex, implanting an array of multiple electrodes at different locations within this cortical map allows for the creation of multiple phosphenes, with each stimulated electrode contributing a phosphene at one predictable visual field location (Bosking et al., 2017…”
BackgroundPhosphene perceptions and safety of chronic visual cortex stimulation in a blind subject
Niketeghad, S., Muralidharan, A., Patel, U., Dorn, J. D., Bonelli, L., Greenberg, R. J., & Pouratian, N. (2020) · Journal of Neurosurgery · doi:10.3171/2019.3.jns182774 · Cited by 33 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Using Dynamic Stimulation to Create Letter Percepts in Blind Participants In blind participant BAA, five electrodes implanted on the medial wall of visual cortex were stimulated (Niketeghad et al., 2019).”
MethodSelf-citationApproaches to a cortical vision prosthesis: implications of electrode size and placement
Christie, B. P., Ashmont, K. R., House, P. A., & Greger, B. (2016) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/13/2/025003 · Cited by 26 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This has inspired hope for the development of a visual cortical prosthetic (VCP), a device that would bypass the eyes and optic nerve, transmitting visual information from a camera directly into the visual cortex (Bosking et al., 2017a; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Christie et al., 2016; Lewis et al., 2015, 2016; Najarpo…”
MethodFrontal cortex selects representations of the talker’s mouth to aid in speech perception
Ozker, M., Yoshor, D., & Beauchamp, M. S. (2018) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.30387 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationPavan, A., Marotti, R. B., & Mather, G. (2013) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/13.6.16 · Cited by 24 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Dynamic stimulationmay be an effective workaround for this limitation because it activates motion-processing circuits that in turn result in form perception, much as visual motion can produce form perception (Pavan et al., 2013).”
BackgroundReading visual braille with a retinal prosthesis
Lauritzen, T. Z., Harris, J., Mohand-Said, S., Sahel, J. A., Dorn, J. D., McClure, K., & Greenberg, R. J. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2012.00168 · Cited by 22 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, 1976), while an individual with a retinal prosthetic recognized 40 braille letters per minute with 89% accuracy (Lauritzen et al., 2012).”
BackgroundRules governing perception of multiple phosphenes by human observers
Bosking, W., Foster, B., Sun, P., Beauchamp, M., & Yoshor, D. (2018) · doi:10.1101/302547 · Cited by 11 · cited 3× · see citing works
“What underlies the greater efficacy of dynamic stimulation as opposed to static stimulation? When multiple electrodes are stimulated at once, the resulting phosphenes can interact, often coalescing into a single phosphene that is not recognizable as a shape (Bosking et al., 2018).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationDeYoe, E. A., Lewine, J. D., & Doty, R. W. (2003) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/iembs.1989.95624 · Cited by 5 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Conclusions Our work represents the continuation of decades of stimulating human and non-human primate visual cortex toward the goal of building a cortical visual prosthetic (Bak et al., 1990; Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Davis et al., 2012; DeYoe et al., 1989; Normann et al., 2009; Schiller and Tehovnik, 2008; Schmidt e…”
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Shape perception via a high-channel-count neuroprosthesis in monkey visual cortex
Chen, X., Wang, F., Fernandez, E., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abd7435 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Self-powered electro-tactile system for virtual tactile experiences
Shi, Y., Wang, F., Tian, J., Li, S., Fu, E., Nie, J., Lei, R., Ding, Y., Chen, X., & Wang, Z. L. (2021) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abe2943 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Fernández, E., Alfaro, A., Soto-Sánchez, C., Gonzalez-Lopez, P., Lozano, A. M., Peña, S., Grima, M. D., Rodil, A., Gómez, B., Chen, X., et al. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci151331 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Bioelectronic medicine: Preclinical insights and clinical advances
Pavlov, V. A., & Tracey, K. J. (2022) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2022.09.003 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Zeng, Q., & Huang, Z. (2023) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202301223 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Cadoni, S., Demené, C., Alcala, I., Provansal, M., Nguyen, D., Nelidova, D., Labernède, G., Lubetzki, J., Goulet, R., Burban, E., et al. (2023) · Nature Nanotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41565-023-01359-6 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Challenges for Large-Scale Cortical Interfaces
Nurmikko, A. (2020) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2020.10.015 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Sharma, S., Chitranshi, N., Wall, R. V., Basavarajappa, D. K., Gupta, V., Mirzaei, M., Graham, S. L., Klistorner, A. I., & You, Y. (2021) · Survey of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2021.06.001 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Kosnoff, J., Yu, K., Liu, C., & He, B. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-48576-8 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“The technique in this study represents a step towards more closely mimicking invasive electrical stimulation 98 .”
A unifying framework for functional organization in early and higher ventral visual cortex
Margalit, E., Lee, H., Finzi, D., DiCarlo, J. J., Kalanit Grill-spector, A., & Yamins, D. L. K. (2024) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2024.04.018 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Based on recent advances in model-driven prostheses, 97–99 we also simulate a device with two components: (1) a ‘‘stimulation simulator’’ that transforms desired activity patterns on the cortical sheet into device-achievable patterns and (2) a ‘‘percept syn-thesizer’’ that visualizes the percept…”
Tactile edges and motion via patterned microstimulation of the human somatosensory cortex
Valle, G., Alamri, A. H., Downey, J. E., Lienkämper, R., Jordan, P. M., Sobinov, A. R., Endsley, L. J., Prasad, D., Boninger, M. L., Collinger, J. L., et al. (2025) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adq5978 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
End-to-end optimization of prosthetic vision
de Ruyter van Steveninck, J., Güçlü, U., van Wezel, R., & van Gerven, M. (2022) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.22.2.20 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Multifunctional human visual pathway-replicated hardware based on 2D materials
Peng, Z., Tong, L., Shi, W., Xu, L., Huang, X., Li, Z., Yu, X., Meng, X., He, X., Lv, S., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-52982-3 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the complete reproduction of visual pathways will help develop brain-computer interface devices that are more adapted to neural structures, and help blind or color-blindness patients regain normal vision 55 – 57 .”
Flexible, high-resolution thin-film electrodes for human and animal neural research
Chiang, C., Wang, C., Barth, K. J., Rahimpour, S., Trumpis, M., Duraivel, S., Rachinskiy, I., Dubey, A., Wingel, K., Wong, M. K., et al. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac02dc · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The 2020 Yearbook of Neurorestoratology
Huang, H., Chen, L., Chopp, M., Young, W., Bach, J. R., He, X., Sarnowaska, A., Xue, M., Zhao, R. C., Shetty, A. K., et al. (2021) · Journal of Neurorestoratology · doi:10.26599/jnr.2021.9040002 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“This means that a brain prosthetic can produce coherent perceptions of visual forms [26].”
BackgroundYang, R., Zhao, P., Wang, L., Feng, C., Chen, P., Wang, Z., Zhang, Y., Shen, M., Shi, K., Weng, S.-J., et al. (2023) · Nature Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1038/s41551-023-01137-8 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“A neuroprosthesis with multichannel electrical stimulation implanted intracranially into V1 also enabled vision in monkeys and humans 24,25 , despite the more invasive surgical procedure compared with retinal prosthesis.”
Brain–computer interface digital prescription for neurological disorders
Chai, X., Cao, T., He, Q., Wang, N., Zhang, X., Shan, X., Lv, Z., Tu, W., Yang, Y., & Zhao, J. (2024) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/cns.14615 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Advances in visual prostheses: engineering and biological challenges
Borda, E., & Ghezzi, D. (2022) · Progress in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1088/2516-1091/ac812c · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Oswalt, D. N., Bosking, W. H., Sun, P., Sheth, S. A., Niketeghad, S., Salas, M. A., Patel, U. K., Greenberg, R. J., Dorn, J. D., Pouratian, N., et al. (2021) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2021.08.024 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“simple discriminations [21], [34], [47], but had no t quantitatively examined this observation in detai l.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationBio-Inspired Vision and Neuromorphic Image Processing Using Printable Metal Oxide Photonic Synapses
Sun, L., Qu, S., Du, Y., Lu, Y., Li, Y., Wang, Z., & Xu, W. (2022) · ACS Photonics · doi:10.1021/acsphotonics.2c01583 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Fernández, E., Alfaro, A., & González-López, P. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00681 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Chronic stability of a neuroprosthesis comprising multiple adjacent Utah arrays in monkeys
Chen, X., Wang, F., Kooijmans, R. N., Klink, P. C., Boehler, C., Asplund, M., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ace07e · Cited by 39 · see citing works
van der Grinten, M., de Ruyter van Steveninck, J., Lozano, A., Pijnacker, L., Rueckauer, B., Roelfsema, P., van Gerven, M., van Wezel, R., Güçlü, U., & Güçlütürk, Y. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.85812 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Neurostimulation hardware and stimulation protocols are continuously being improved ( Beauchamp et al., 2020 ), and clinical trials with cortical visual neuroprostheses are often limited to small numbers of blind volunteers ( Fernández and Normann, 2017 ; Troyk, 2017 ).”
BackgroundHughes, C. L., & Kozai, T. D. Y. (2023) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2023.05.013 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Biohybrid neural interfaces: improving the biological integration of neural implants
Boulingre, M., Lara, R. P., & Green, R. A. (2023) · Chemical Communications · doi:10.1039/d3cc05006h · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Recalibration of neuromodulation parameters in neural implants with adaptive Bayesian optimization
Aiello, G., Valle, G., & Raspopović, S. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/acc975 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Learning to control the brain through adaptive closed-loop patterned stimulation
Tafazoli, S., MacDowell, C. J., Che, Z., Letai, K. C., Steinhardt, C. R., & Buschman, T. J. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abb860 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Beyeler, M., & Sanchez-Garcia, M. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aca69d · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…current prosthesis users report seeing highly distorted phosphenes, which vary in shape across subjects as well as electrodes and often fail to assemble into more complex percepts (Wilke et al 2011, Beyeler et al 2019, Beauchamp et al 2020, Erickson-Davis and Korzybska 2021, Fernández et al 2021).”
Percepts evoked by multi-electrode stimulation of human visual cortex
Bosking, W. H., Oswalt, D. N., Foster, B. L., Sun, P., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2022) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2022.08.007 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“This has been demonstrated by 63 mapping phosphene locations in blind subjects enrolled in testing of prototype VCPs 64 [4,7,8,10,18,19] and observation of normal resting state patterns of activity in visual cortex as 65 measured by human neuroimaging [20].”
MethodResultSelf-citationCaspi, A., Barry, M. P., Patel, U. K., Salas, M. A., Dorn, J. D., Roy, A., Niketeghad, S., Greenberg, R. J., & Pouratian, N. (2021) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2021.04.019 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“This is an open access article term implantation [4,5].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationNeural electrodes for brain‐computer interface system: From rigid to soft
Yang, D., Tian, G., Chen, J., Liu, Y., Fatima, E., Qiu, J., Malek, N. A. N. N., & Qi, D. (2025) · BMEMat · doi:10.1002/bmm2.12130 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Next generation therapeutics for retinal neurodegenerative diseases
Appell, M. B., Pejavar, J., Pasupathy, A., Rompicharla, S. V. K., Abbasi, S., Malmberg, K., Kolodziejski, P., & Ensign, L. M. (2024) · Journal of Controlled Release · doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.01.063 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Flexible Polymer Electrodes for Stable Prosthetic Visual Perception in Mice
Orlemann, C., Boehler, C., Kooijmans, R. N., Li, B., Asplund, M., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2024) · Advanced Healthcare Materials · doi:10.1002/adhm.202304169 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The application of computer vision to visual prosthesis
Wang, J., Zhu, H., Liu, J., Li, H., Han, Y., Zhou, R., & Zhang, Y. (2021) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1111/aor.14022 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Liu, X., Chen, P., Ding, X., Liu, A., Li, P., Sun, C., & Guan, H. (2022) · Annals of Translational Medicine · doi:10.21037/atm-22-2858 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“These investigations demonstrate that a brain prosthesis may be capable of providing coherent sensations of visual shape (47).”
BackgroundMasuda, Y., Takemura, H., Terao, M., Miyazaki, A., Ogawa, S., Horiguchi, H., Nakadomari, S., Matsumoto, K., Nakano, T., Wandell, B. A., et al. (2020) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.034 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
CRISPR/Cas9—A Promising Therapeutic Tool to Cure Blindness: Current Scenario and Future Prospects
Ahmad, I. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms231911482 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“RP is considered an important source of progressive blindness affecting 1 in 4000 individuals [50].”
BackgroundElectronic Retinal ProsthesesPreprint
Palanker, D. (2023) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a041525 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Microstimulation-evoked neural responses in visual cortex are depth dependent
Allison-Walker, T., Hagan, M. A., Price, N. S. C., & Wong, Y. T. (2021) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2021.04.020 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Vision Restoration by Optogenetic Therapy and Developments Toward Sonogenetic Therapy
Provansal, M., Marazova, K., Sahel, J., & Picaud, S. A. (2022) · Translational Vision Science & Technology · doi:10.1167/tvst.11.1.18 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Holographic Brain Theory: Super-Radiance, Memory Capacity and Control Theory
Nishiyama, A., Tanaka, S., Tuszyński, J. A., & Tsenkova, R. N. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25042399 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“A recently reported experiment for invasive stimulation to manipulate our visual subjective experience was described in [50], for example.”
BackgroundAdvances in neuroscience, not devices, will determine the effectiveness of visual prostheses
Abbasi, B., & Rizzo, J. F. (2021) · Seminars in Ophthalmology · doi:10.1080/08820538.2021.1887902 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“across cortical electrodes to generate percepts that were inapparent with simultaneous static stimulation.(25) This approach is very appealing because it creates virtual electrodes (i.”
BackgroundJi, B., Sun, F., Guo, J., Zhou, Y., You, X., Ye, F., Wang, L., Xu, M., Zeng, W., Liu, J., et al. (2023) · Microsystems & Nanoengineering · doi:10.1038/s41378-023-00597-x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Antolík, J., Sabatier, Q., Galle, C., Frégnac, Y., & Benosman, R. B. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88960-8 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Aggarwal, A., Luo, J., Chung, H., Contreras, D., Kelz, M. B., & Proekt, A. (2024) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114017 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“97 These lines of evidence together suggest that visual perception relies upon the interactions between spontaneous dynamics and perturbations imposed onto them by the visual stimuli.”
Current perspective on retinal remodeling: Implications for therapeutics
Pfeiffer, R. L., & Jones, B. W. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroanatomy · doi:10.3389/fnana.2022.1099348 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Clinical trials of all implants demonstrate early successes in restoring some vision to patients who were previously non-light perceiving (Ahuja et al., 2011; Dorn et al., 2013; Beauchamp et al., 2020); however, movement of the implant, long-term efficacy, and sustained support for permanent implants are ongoing conce…”
BackgroundIntracortical current steering shifts the location of evoked neural activity
Meikle, S. J., Hagan, M. A., Price, N. S. C., & Wong, Y. T. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac77bf · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Cortical current steering has been confirmed to create phosphenes in different spatial locations in one subject using subdural implants [14].”
InfluentialAn Implantable Biohybrid Neural Interface Toward Synaptic Deep Brain Stimulation
Sifringer, L., Fratzl, A., Clément, B., Chansoria, P., Mönkemöller, L. S., Duru, J., Ihle, S. J., Steffens, S., Beltraminelli, A., Ceylan, E., et al. (2025) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202416557 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Fine, I., & Boynton, G. M. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-65337-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“The result is an ocular dominance map whose columns overlap with the orientation map in a manner consistent with results from optical imaging data from Obermayer and Blasdel 41 .”
BackgroundResultLevy, L., Ebadi, H., Smith, A. P., Taiclet, L., Pouratian, N., & Feinsinger, A. (2023) · AJOB Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/21507740.2023.2257152 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Recently, researchers have found that dynamic stimulation patterns (more analogous to the tactile experience of tracing a letter on one’s palm) enable participants to better identify a wider range of patterns (Beauchamp et al. 2020).”
Self-citationDoes brain activity cause consciousness? A thought experiment
Gidon, A., Aru, J., & Larkum, M. E. (2022) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3001651 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Electrical stimulation of sensory brain areas is becoming sufficiently precise to deliver specific content, bypassing sensory organs [10] or diseased brain tissue [11].”
BackgroundLear, A., Baker, S. N., Clarke, H. F., Roberts, A., Schmid, M. C., & Jarrett, W. (2022) · Current Research in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.crneur.2022.100049 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“generated vision in monkeys and then in humans by electrically stimulating their visual cortexes using hundreds of electrodes (Beauchamp et al., 2020) (Chen et al.”
MethodNanotechnology for vision restoration
Lanzani, G., Chiaravalli, G., Colombo, E., Manfredi, G., Marco, S. D., Vurro, V., & Benfenati, F. (2024) · Nature Reviews Bioengineering · doi:10.1038/s44222-024-00210-4 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Emerging Medical Technologies and Their Use in Bionic Repair and Human Augmentation
Manero, A. C., Rivera, V., Fu, Q., Schwartzman, J. D., Gibbs, H. P., Shah, N., Gandhi, D. A., White, E., Crawford, K. E., & Coathup, M. J. (2024) · Bioengineering · doi:10.3390/bioengineering11070695 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“The visual cortex, located in the posterior aspect of the cerebral cortex, is responsible for receiving and processing visual information, often remaining intact in the cases of acquired blindness [195,196].”
BackgroundTractometry of Human Visual White Matter Pathways in Health and Disease
Takemura, H., Kruper, J., Miyata, T., & Rokem, A. (2024) · Magnetic Resonance in Medical Sciences · doi:10.2463/mrms.rev.2024-0007 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“A better understanding on the effects of specific disorders on the different stages of visual information processing should improve our ability to establish the best intervention strategy for each disorder (e.g., retinal prostheses, 76,77 cortical prostheses, 78 or stem cell therapies 79 ).”
BackgroundOculomotor Responses to Dynamic Stimuli in a 44-Channel Suprachoroidal Retinal Prosthesis
Titchener, S. A., Kvansakul, J. G. S., Shivdasani, M. N., Fallon, J. B., Nayagam, D. A. X., Epp, S. B., Williams, C. E., Barnes, N. M., Kentler, W. G., Kolic, M., et al. (2020) · Translational Vision Science & Technology · doi:10.1167/tvst.9.13.31 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Attitudes of potential recipients toward emerging visual prosthesis technologies
Karadima, V., Pezaris, E., & Pezaris, J. S. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-36913-8 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, significant work continues in both pre-clinical 16 and clinical levels 66,67 .”
Wang, C., Fang, C., Zou, Y., Yang, J., & Sawan, M. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/acb295 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Ryu, S. B., Paulk, A. C., Yang, J. C., Ganji, M., Dayeh, S. A., Cash, S. S., Fried, S. I., & Lee, S. W. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abbd22 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The stimulation frequency was also fixed at 200 Hz for both electric and magnetic stimulation, a frequency used commonly in cortical visual prostheses (Beauchamp et al 2020).”
BackgroundMethodAdaptive Interfacial Materials and Implants for Visual Restoration
Zhu, X., Wang, F., Zhao, Q., & Du, X. (2024) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202314575 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Sequence of visual cortex stimulation affects phosphene brightness in blind subjects
Salas, M. A., Bell, J. S., Niketeghad, S., Oswalt, D. N., Bosking, W. H., Patel, U. K., Dorn, J. D., Yoshor, D., Greenberg, R. J., Bari, A., et al. (2022) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2022.03.008 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Secondly, if multiple-electrode sequences are desirable to generate form vision with cortical stimulation [16], then a clear understanding of how the perception changes during sequential stimulation is key to implement these stimulation paradigms.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationMapping Visual Field Defects With fMRI – Impact of Approach and Experimental Conditions
Prabhakaran, G. T., Al-Nosairy, K. O., Tempelmann, C., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.745886 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Influence of field of view in visual prostheses design: Analysis with a VR system
Sanchez-Garcia, M., Martínez-Cantín, R., Bermúdez-Cameo, J., & Guerrero, J. J. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abb9be · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hughes, C. L., Stieger, K. C., Chen, K., Vazquez, A. L., & Kozai, T. D. Y. (2025) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.112707 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Axonal stimulation affects the linear summation of single-point perception in three Argus II users
Hou, Y., Nanduri, D., Granley, J., Weiland, J. D., & Beyeler, M. (2024) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad31c4 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Indeed, human participants implanted with cortical surface electrodes required a dynamic stimulation strategy to allow for perceptual grouping (Beauchamp et al 2020).”
Londoño‐Ramírez, H., Huang, X., Cools, J., Chrzanowska, A., Brunner, C., Ballini, M., Hoffman, L., Steudel, S., Rolin, C., López, C. M., et al. (2023) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202308507 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Neurophysiological considerations for visual implants
Meikle, S. J., & Wong, Y. T. (2022) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-021-02417-2 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Toward a personalized closed-loop stimulation of the visual cortex: Advances and challenges
Grani, F., Soto-Sánchez, C., Fimia, A., & Fernández, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2022.1034270 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“, 2022), several groups are trying to develop visual prostheses designed to directly stimulate the visual cortex (Lee et al., 2016; Beauchamp et al., 2020; Fernandez et al., 2021; Bosking et al., 2022).”
BackgroundNon-Equilibrium ϕ4 Theory in a Hierarchy: Towards Manipulating Holograms in Quantum Brain Dynamics
Nishiyama, A., Tanaka, S., & Tuszyński, J. A. (2023) · Dynamics · doi:10.3390/dynamics3010001 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Datta-Chaudhuri, T., Zanos, T. P., Chang, E. H., Olofsson, P. S., Bickel, S., Bouton, C. E., Grande, D. A., Rieth, L. W., Aranow, C. B., Bloom, O., et al. (2021) · Bioelectronic Medicine · doi:10.1186/s42234-021-00068-6 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Dr. Daniel Yoshor described efforts to restore vision with intracerebral stimulating arrays (Beauchamp et al. 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationVisual cortical prosthesis: an electrical perspective
Pio‐Lopez, L., Poulkouras, R., & Depannemaecker, D. (2021) · Journal of Medical Engineering & Technology · doi:10.1080/03091902.2021.1907468 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“also showed that when multiple electrodes were stimulated simultaneously, phosphenes could fuse into larger visual perceptions, not allowing independent recognition of the induced phosphenes [51].”
BackgroundWriting to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind
Roelfsema, P. R. (2020) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.014 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“In this issue of Cell, Beauchamp et al. (2020) used electrical stimulation of the visual cortex to produce visual percepts.”
BackgroundInfluentialA novel interface for cortical columnar neuromodulation with multipoint infrared neural stimulation
Tian, F., Zhang, Y., Schriver, K. E., Hu, J. M., & Roe, A. W. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-50375-0 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Local field potentials, spiking activity, and receptive fields in human visual cortex
Luo, L., Wang, X., Lu, J., Chen, G., Luan, G., Li, W., Wang, Q., & Fang, F. (2023) · Science China Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11427-023-2436-x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…of gamma-range activities not only enhances our comprehension of the intricate mechanisms underlying visual proces-548 sing but also illuminates new prospects for developing innovative neuromodulation therapies targeting visual cortex (Beauchamp et al., 2020; Fu et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021).”
Kunigk, N. G., Urdaneta, M. E., Malone, I. G., Delgado, F., & Otto, K. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.876142 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Zeng, Q., Huang, Z., Cai, G., & Wu, T. (2021) · Advanced Materials Interfaces · doi:10.1002/admi.202100965 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The impact of synchronous versus asynchronous electrical stimulation in artificial vision
Moleirinho, S., Whalen, A. J., Fried, S. I., & Pezaris, J. S. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abecf1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“…performance limitations of prostheses using penetrating electrodes, although recent results from microelectrode arrays implanted in non-human primates (Chen et al 2020) and surface arrays implanted in humans (Beauchamp et al 2020) suggest that very simple shapes can be correctly identified.”
InfluentialAligning Visual Prosthetic Development With Implantee Needs
Nadolskis, L., Turkstra, L. M., Larnyo, E., & Beyeler, M. (2024) · Translational Vision Science & Technology · doi:10.1167/tvst.13.11.28 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Precise control of neural activity using dynamically optimized electrical stimulation
Shah, N. P., Phillips, A., Madugula, S., Lotlikar, A., Gogliettino, A. R., Hays, M. R., Grosberg, L., Brown, J., Dusi, A., Tandon, P., et al. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.83424 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
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Borda, E., Gaillet, V., Airaghi Leccardi, M. J. I., Zollinger, E. G., Moreira, R. C., & Ghezzi, D. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac6d7e · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Mohan, V., Tay, W. P., & Basu, A. (2025) · Neuromorphic Computing and Engineering · doi:10.1088/2634-4386/adad10 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Advances in neurotechnology in recent years has allowed partial restoration of lost sensory capabilities such as vision [1], speech [2] and touch [3] through stimulation, and limited motor capabilities in people suffering from motor impairment or paralysis.”
Losing, preserving, and restoring vision from neurodegeneration in the eye
Kerschensteiner, D. (2023) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.08.044 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
A Unifying Principle for the Functional Organization of Visual CortexPreprint
Margalit, E., Lee, H., Finzi, D., DiCarlo, J. J., Kalanit Grill-spector, A., & Yamins, D. L. K. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.05.18.541361 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Real-Time Optimization of the Current Steering for Visual Prosthesis
Chen, Z., Wang, B.-Y., & Palanker, D. (2021) · International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering · doi:10.1109/ner49283.2021.9441400 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In cortical visual prosthesis, current steering was implemented to provide smooth transition between the sequentially activated electrodes [13].”
MethodComparison of electrical microstimulation artifact removal methods for high-channel-count prostheses
Wang, F., Chen, X., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2024) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2024.110169 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Several studies have provided proof-of-concept visual prosthesis devices can restore a rudimentary form of vision based on phosphenes (Beauchamp et al., 2020; Bosking et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2020; Fern ´ andez et al., 2021).”
Connectomic DBS: An introduction
Horn, A., Al‐Fatly, B., Neumann, W., & Neudorfer, C. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-821861-7.00020-8 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Sequential epiretinal stimulation improves discrimination in simple shape discrimination tasks only
Christie, B., Sadeghi, R., Kartha, A., Caspi, A., Tenore, F. V., Klatzky, R. L., Dagnelie, G., & Billings, S. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac7326 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“To improve the clarity of images produced by stimulating through multiple electrodes, recent studies tested a stimulation paradigm that sequentially and rapidly stimulated individual electrodes placed on human visual cortex (Beauchamp et al. 2020; Oswalt et al. 2021).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLongitudinal stability of individual brain plasticity patterns in blindness
Amaral, L., Thomas, P., Amedi, A., & Striem-Amit, E. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2320251121 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“This is even more important in applying invasive medical restoration approaches (92); e.g., cataract removal (93–95), gene therapy treatments (96, 97), stem - cell transplantation (98), or retinal or cortical prostheses (99–105), given the high variability in outcomes in these cases (8–11).”
Optogenetic activation of visual thalamus generates artificial visual percepts
Wang, J., Azimi, H., Zhao, Y., Kaeser, M., Sánchez, P. V., Vázquez‐Guardado, A., Rogers, J. A., Harvey, M., & Rainer, G. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.90431 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Neuroprotection, Neuroenhancement, and Neuroregeneration of the Retina and Optic Nerve
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“Several BCI systems in patients with ALS or paraplegia have used fMRI to place grids on sensorimotor cortex (Collinger et al 2013, Bouton et al 2016, Vansteensel et al 2016, Ben-abid et al 2019) and visual cortex (Beauchamp et al 2020).”
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Ultrasound stimulation for non-invasive visual prostheses
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Raising the stakes for cortical visual prostheses
Beauchamp, M. S., Bosking, W. H., Oswalt, D. N., & Yoshor, D. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci154983 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationOrtiz-Rios, M., Agayby, B., Balezeau, F., Haag, M., Rima, S., & Schmid, M. C. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.06.01.446505 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…combined with a retinotopic organisation that supports high-resolution vision are important reasons why V1 is regularly made the target for the development of methods aimed at restoring visual function in retinal disease (Beauchamp et al., 2020a; Bosking et al., 2017; Tehovnik et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethod3D soft microbump electrodes for elastic interaction with brain tissue
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“Complete visual deprivation during early development has been shown to enhance the sensitivity of sensory receptors [55].”
Recent advancement of sonogenetics: A promising noninvasive cellular manipulation by ultrasound
Tang, J. B., Feng, M., Wang, D., Zhang, L., & Yang, K. (2023) · Genes & Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.gendis.2023.101112 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Measuring visual information gathering in individuals with ultra low vision using virtual reality
Kartha, A., Sadeghi, R., Bradley, C., Tran, C. T. T., Gee, W., & Dagnelie, G. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-30249-z · Cited by 8 · see citing works
- Authors
- Beauchamp, M. S., Oswalt, D., Sun, P., Foster, B. L., Magnotti, J. F., Niketeghad, S., Pouratian, N., Bosking, W. H., & Yoshor, D.
- Affiliations
- Baylor College of Medicine (US)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Yoshor, Daniel
- ORCID
- Venue
- Cell
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-05
- Volume
- 181
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 774-783.e5
- ISSN
- 0092-8674 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7331799
- OpenAlex
- W3025482455
- Semantic Scholar
- e916ea733ce57efbb76738d60911a799ef02f4af
- Cited by
- 257
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 21
- FWCI
- 14.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cell (publishedVersion)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- DRYAD (public-domain)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (R01NS065395, UH3NS103442, R01EY023336, R01MH116914)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Keywords
- phosphenes, visual form perception, letter recognition, visual cortex, brain-computer interface
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Blindness, Electric Stimulation, Electrodes, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Phosphenes, Vision, Ocular, Visual Cortex, Visual Perception, Visual Prosthesis
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