Feasibility of a visual prosthesis for the blind based on intracortical micro stimulation of the visual cortex
Abstract
The feasibility of producing a visual prosthesis for the blind using intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) of the visual cortex was studied in a 42-year-old woman who had been totally blind for 22 years secondary to glaucoma. Thirty-eight microelectrodes were implanted in the right visual cortex, near the occipital pole, for a period of 4 months. Percepts reported as small spots of light, called phosphenes, were produced with 34 of the 38 implanted microelectrodes. Threshold currents for phosphene generation with trains of biphasic pulses were as low as 1.9 microA, and most of the microelectrodes had thresholds below 25 microA. Phosphene brightness could be modified with stimulus amplitude, frequency and pulse duration. Repeated stimulation over a period of minutes produced a gradual decrease in phosphene brightness. Phosphenes did not flicker. The apparent size of phosphenes ranged from a "pin-point' to a "nickel' (20 mm diameter coin) held at arm's length. Phosphene size usually decreased as stimulation current was increased but increased slightly as the train length (TL) was increased. At levels of stimulation near threshold, the phosphenes were often reported to have colours. As the stimulation level was increased, the phosphenes generally became white, greyish or yellowish. Individual phosphenes appeared at different distances from the subject. When two phosphenes were simultaneously generated, the apparent distances of the individual phosphenes sometimes changed to make them appear to be at about the same distance. When three or more phosphenes were simultaneously generated, they became coplanar. Except for rare occasions, phosphenes extinguished rapidly at the termination of the stimulation train. When stimulation TLs were increased beyond 1 s, phosphenes usually disappeared before the end of the train. The duration of phosphene perception could be increased by interrupting a long stimulation train with brief pauses in stimulation. Intracortical microelectrodes spaced 500 microns apart generated separate phosphenes, but microelectrodes spaced 250 microns typically did not. This two-point resolution was about five times closer than has typically been achieved with surface stimulation. With some individual microelectrodes, a second closely spaced phosphene was sometimes produced by increasing the stimulation current. Phosphenes moved with eye movements. When up to six phosphenes were simultaneously elicited, they all moved with the same relative orientation during eye movements. All phosphenes were located in the left hemi-field with the majority above the horizontal meridian. There was a clustering of most of the phosphenes within a relatively small area of visual space. The potentially greater microelectrode density and lower power requirements of ICMS compared with surface stimulation appears encouraging for a visual prosthesis. However, further studies with blind subjects are required to optimize stimulation parameters and test complex image recognition before the feasibility of a visual prosthesis based on ICMS can be established.
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In early VCP testing and in the authors' replication with sighted participants, stimulating multiple electrodes produced only isolated phosphenes that did not combine into coherent forms.
“In early testing with VCPs, stimulation of multiple electrodes produced only percepts of multiple isolated phosphenes which did not combine into coherent forms (Dobelle et al., 1976; Schmidt et al., 1996), a finding we replicated in sighted participants implanted with intracranial electrodes for the pre-surgical evaluation of epilepsy (Bosking et al., 2018a).”
From Dynamic Stimulation of Visual Cortex Produces Form Vision in Sighted and Blind Humans (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The Percepts from multiple phosphenes and Pattern recognition sections (pages unavailable in our copy) report that simultaneous stimulation produced six touching phosphenes in a vertical line, which the subject considered suitable to represent a letter or part of one. That conflicts with the claim that the phosphenes remained only isolated percepts that did not form coherent shapes. The citing authors’ replication in sighted participants is their own finding, not a finding attributed to Schmidt et al. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the study by Schmidt et al., electrodes were implanted individually and many broke early in the experiment; therefore, only very limited testing of pattern recognition could be conducted.
“However, in the study by Schmidt et al., electrodes were implanted individually and many broke early in the experiment; therefore, only very limited testing of pattern recognition could be conducted.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
The Pattern recognition section says that early breakage of lead wires limited pattern-recognition testing; Phosphene threshold currents also reports multiple broken gold leads. But the Microelectrodes section describes 12 single electrodes and 13 fastened pairs, not electrodes implanted individually. The paper attributes the breakage to leads, rather than saying the electrodes themselves broke. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPhosphene size, stimulation threshold, and brightness depend on stimulation parameters such as pulse width, train length, amplitude, and frequency of stimulation.
“Furthermore, phosphene size, stimulation threshold (defined as the minimum current to produce a visible phosphene 50% of the time) and brightness depend on stimulation parameters such as the pulse width, train length, amplitude, and frequency of stimulation (Bak et al., 1990; Schmidt et al., 1996; Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bosking et al., 2017; Niketeghad et al., 2020; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The Phosphene size, Brightness modulation, Effects of pulse duration, Effects of TL and frequency, and Effect of stimulation frequency sections report that stimulation parameters affect phosphene size, brightness, and threshold current (page numbers unavailable). The parenthetical definition is not supported: Threshold testing defines threshold as the lowest current at which the subject perceived a phosphene, not the current producing a phosphene 50% of the time. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThere is ambivalence in reports of phosphene color, including descriptions ranging from black or white to different tones of color.
“Regarding the color of phosphenes, there is still some ambivalence in the reports, including descriptions of phosphene color ranging from black or white to different tones of color (Tehovnik and Slocum, 2007; Tehovnik et al., 2009; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The “Phosphene colour” section reports phosphenes described as white, violet, yellow, blue, red, and greyish, supporting variation in reported colour. It does not report black phosphenes or assess ambivalence across reports, so those parts of the citing sentence are not supported by this paper. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe present results support previous findings and show that the border between V1 and V2, located near the occipital pole, is a suitable place for a cortical visual prosthesis.
“Our present results support previous findings (5, 10, 38, 39, 41, 42) and show that the border between V1 and V2, which is located near the occipital pole, is a suitable place for a cortical visual prosthesis (37).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
The Surgical procedures section (page unavailable) places the implants near the right occipital pole, and the Concluding remarks (page unavailable) describe the results as encouraging for a visual prosthesis. The cited paper does not identify the implant site as the V1–V2 border or establish that border specifically as suitable. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
This 2-point resolution is closer than the 500 μm resolution reported previously with a single electrode pair of gold wire electrodes, and about 5 times closer than has been achieved with surface electrodes.
“This 2-point resolution is closer than the 500 μ m resolution reported previously with a single electrode pair of gold wire electrodes (10), and about 5 times closer than has been achieved with surface electrodes (2-5, 7).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
The Electrode spacing section reports that microelectrodes 0.5 mm apart usually produced separate phosphenes. But the Microelectrodes section describes multiple pairs of iridium microelectrodes, with gold wire used for their leads—not a single pair of gold-wire electrodes. The paper therefore supports the 500 μm comparison but not the cited description of the electrodes. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStimulation via electrodes that were spaced close to each other evoked separate phosphenes.
“and stimulation via electrodes that were spaced close to each other evoked separate phosphenes”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
The simulator includes a model of the temporal dynamics, observed by Schmidt et al., 1996, accounting for response-attenuation after prolonged or repeated stimulation, as well as the delayed 'offset' of phosphene perception.
“Furthermore, our simulator includes a model of the temporal dynamics, observed by Schmidt et al., 1996, accounting for response-attenuation after prolonged or repeated stimulation, as well as the delayed ‘offset’ of phosphene perception.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The simulator's temporal dynamics fit the data from Schmidt et al., 1996, and the model accounts for experimental data on accommodation in response to repeated stimulation for time periods up to 200 s.
“Figure 4 displays the simulator’s fit on the temporal dynamics found in a previous published study by Schmidt et al., 1996.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The effects found by Fernández et al., 2021 are consistent with findings by other studies reporting brighter phosphenes for higher stimulation strengths and lower stimulation efficiency for longer pulse trains or higher pulse widths and frequencies.
“Note that the effects found by Fernández et al., 2021 (that were modeled by us) are consistent with findings by other studies, which report brighter phosphenes for higher stimulation strengths (Schmidt et al., 1996), and a lower stimulation efficiency (i.e. higher total charge thresholds) for longer pulse trains or higher pulse widths and frequencies (Niketeghad et al., 2020).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
In contrast to Schmidt et al., 1996, the simulator predicts a moderate recovery over the next 1000 s.
“However, in contrast to the findings by Schmidt et al., 1996, our simulator predicts a moderate recovery over the next 1000s.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
In cortical prostheses, the position of the artificially induced percept will shift along with eye movements.
“and in cortical prostheses the position of the artificially induced percept will shift along with eye movements (Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Increasing stimulation amplitudes can lead the appearance to shift from colored to yellowish or white.
“Notably, increasing the stimulation amplitudes can lead the appearance to shift from colored to yellowish or white (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Dynamic optimization of stimulation may be necessary to counteract unwanted effects such as response fading due to accommodation after repeated or prolonged stimulation, or delayed phosphene perception after stimulation on- and offset.
“Dynamic optimization of the stimulation may be necessary to counteract unwanted effects such as response fading due to accommodation after repeated or prolonged stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996), or delayed phosphene perception after stimulation on- and offset.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The appearance of phosphenes in the simulation (white, round, soft dots of light) is largely in line with previous reports on intracortical stimulation.
“The appearance of phosphenes in our simulation (white, round, soft dots of light) are largely in line with previous reports on intracortical stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996; Bak et al., 1990; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Microstimulation via microelectrodes that penetrated the visual cortex could help to mitigate some limitations of surface electrodes.
“The work of Schmidt et al. (10) showed that microstimulation via microelectrodes that penetrated the visual cortex could help to mitigate some of these limitations.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Phosphenes could be evoked with stimulation currents in the tens of microamps range.
“Phosphenes could be evoked with stimulation currents in the tens of microamps range”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Desensitization/adaptation as a result of repeated stimulation over several seconds has been observed in both the retinal and cortical literature.
“as has been observed in both the retinal70 and cortical literature34”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
Previous experimental studies have found it extremely difficult to generate recognizable shapes through stimulation of multiple electrodes.
“Previous experimental studies have found it extremely difficult to generate recognizable shapes through stimulation of multiple electrodes34,84.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
Various studies have shown longer-scale desensitization with prolonged stimulation in both human and macaque, and this is also observed with retinal prostheses.
“Third, although our model fits current temporal data reasonably well and includes desensitization due to the refractory period, it is worth noting that various studies have shown longer-scale desensitization with prolonged stimulation in both human34 and macaque89 and this is also observed with retinal prostheses70.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
Penetrating electrodes need far less current and create smaller phosphenes than surface electrodes.
“Penetrating electrodes require orders of magnitude less current and produce smaller phosphenes (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The distance between epicortical electrodes and neurons reduces the spatial resolution of artificial vision, and high currents might be unsafe due to the risk of seizures.
“This distance reduces the spatial resolution of artificial vision [99], and high currents might be unsafe due to the risk of seizures [88].”
From Advances in visual prostheses: engineering and biological challenges (2022) · cites this paper as [99]
Increasing electrode density increases the risk of stimulation cross-talk and current summation when neighbouring electrodes are activated simultaneously.
“Increasing the electrode density increases the risk of having a stimulation cross-talk and current summation when neighbouring electrodes are activated simultaneously.”
From Three-dimensional multilayer concentric bipolar electrodes restrict spatial activation in optic nerve stimulation (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
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“That being said, penetrating cortical arrays have strong potential for encoding information into the brain through auditory and visual neuroprosthetics [50].”
BackgroundFernández, E., Alfaro, A., Soto-Sánchez, C., Gonzalez-Lopez, P., Lozano, A. M., Peña, S., Grima, M. D., Rodil, A., Gómez, B., Chen, X., et al. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci151331 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
“We found similar results in previous animal experiments (35), and the visual prosthesis work with intracortical microelectrodes of Schmidt and colleagues also indicates that there is some variability phosphene location (10).”
InfluentialLewis, P. M., Ackland, H. M., Lowery, A. J., & Rosenfeld, J. V. (2015) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2014.11.020 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Image-Guided Focused Ultrasound-Mediated Regional Brain Stimulation in Sheep.
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Over-pulsing degrades activated iridium oxide films used for intracortical neural stimulation
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Wireless smart implants dedicated to multichannel monitoring and microstimulation
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Demonstration of artificial visual percepts generated through thalamic microstimulation
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The functional performance of the Argus II retinal prosthesis
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“[22–24]) are reviewed elsewhere [25–27].”
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“, 2003), visual (Bak et al., 1990; Bradley et al., 2005; Normann et al., 1999; Schmidt et al., 1996; Weiland et al., 2005), somatosensory (Butovas and Schwarz, 2007; Romo and Salinas, 2001), motor control (Mushahwar et al.”
Consciousness and complexity: a consilience of evidence
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“…volume required to elicit phosphenes of different colors roughly corresponds to the size of a cortical minicolumn (Schmidt et al. 1996), whereas such color discrimination is lost when the activated volume is increased to the size of an hypercolumn (Tehovnik and…”
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“DeYoe and Schmidt et al. have demonstrated that “phosphene” generation can be elicited with currents as low as 1 or 2 A in monkeys and humans (charge/phase 0.2‐0.4 nC/phase) [5], [ 25 ].”
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Visual prostheses for the blind
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Facial Recognition Using Simulated Prosthetic Pixelized Vision
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A model for intracortical visual prosthesis research
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Self-citationPlasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposited silicon carbide as an implantable dielectric coating
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Technology Insight: future neuroprosthetic therapies for disorders of the nervous system
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Integrated circuit amplifiers for multi-electrode intracortical recording
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“Microprobes have been chronically implanted in few patients (Schmidt et al 1996, Ulbert et al 2001, Kennedy et al 2004, Hochberg et al 2006, McCreery 2008), and no data have been released on the dc probe current and the ensuing damage, if any.”
MethodStudies of Neuroplasticity With Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
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Gerontechnology in perspective
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Visually Guided Performance of Simple Tasks Using Simulated Prosthetic Vision
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Finite Element Analysis of the Current-Density and Electric Field Generated by Metal Microelectrodes
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“Finally, we examined whether the influence of V1 microstimulation on area V4 depends on the perception of phosphenes, artificial percepts of light at the RF location (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundEvaluation of novel stimulus waveforms for deep brain stimulation
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Non-rectangular waveforms for neural stimulation with practical electrodes
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Development and Implantation of a Minimally Invasive Wireless Subretinal Neurostimulator
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Visuotopic Mapping Through a Multichannel Stimulating Implant in Primate V1
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Self-citationImplantable microcoils for intracortical magnetic stimulation
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Chapter 16. Sensory substitution
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Dynamics of Depolarization and Hyperpolarization in the Frontal Cortex and Saccade Goal
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Toward the development of a cortically based visual neuroprosthesis
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“are used extensively for stimulation studies in cortex [6]–[9], the cochlear nucleus [10] and spinal cord [11].”
Saccadic eye movements evoked by microstimulation of striate cortex
Tehovnik, E. J., Slocum, W. M., & Schiller, P. H. (2003) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02489.x · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“A phosphene has been described as a bright, circular white spot of light varying in size of up to roughly 2 degrees of visual angle (Dobelle & Mladejovsky, 1974; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSputtered iridium oxide films (SIROFs) for low-impedance neural stimulation and recording electrodes
Cogan, S. F., Plante, T. D., & Ehrlich, J. (2005) · The 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society · doi:10.1109/iembs.2004.1404158 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
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A floating metal microelectrode array for chronic implantation
Musallam, S., Bak, M. J., Troyk, P. R., & Andersen, R. A. (2006) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.09.005 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citationInsights into cortical mechanisms of behavior from microstimulation experiments
Histed, M. H., Ni, A. M., & Maunsell, J. H. R. (2012) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.01.006 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
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Electrical stimulation of cranial nerves in cognition and disease
Adair, D., Truong, D. Q., Esmaeilpour, Z., Gebodh, N., Borges, H., Ho, L., Bremner, J. D., Badran, B. W., Napadow, V., Clark, V. P., et al. (2020) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2020.02.019 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
A Highly Flexible System for Microstimulation of the Visual Cortex: Design and Implementation
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The Emerging World Of Motor Neuroprosthetics: a Neurosurgical Perspective
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“Further development in a cortically based prosthesis requires: ( a) a better understanding of the biocompatibility of these structures in primates and includes determining the nature of pial proliferation reported by Rousche & Normann (68, 74), and Maynard et al (67), (b) behavioral experiments in primates to determin…”
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Brain Machine Interfaces for Vision Restoration: The Current State of Cortical Visual Prosthetics
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Electrical Stimulation of the Proprioceptive Cortex (Area 3a) Used to Instruct a Behaving Monkey
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“Attempts have also been made to deliver visual and auditory percepts by electrical stimulation of primary visual [12], [13] and auditory [14], [15] cortex, respectively.”
BackgroundTheta-burst microstimulation in the human entorhinal area improves memory specificity
Titiz, A. S., Hill, M. R. H., Mankin, E. A., Aghajan, Z. M., Eliashiv, D. S., Tchemodanov, N., Maoz, U., Stern, J. M., Tran, M. E., Schuette, P. J., et al. (2017) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.29515 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“Chronic neural implants that use macrostimulation to treat conditions such as Parkinson’s Disease and Epilepsy have become increasingly common ( Fisher and Velasco, 2014 ; Schuepbach et al., 2013 ).”
Retinal and Optic Nerve Diseases
Margalit, E., & Sadda, S. R. (2003) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1046/j.1525-1594.2003.07304.x · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Microsystem technologies for implantable applications
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“Another group uses an array of 38 microelectrodes spaced 500 μm apart [172].”
Perceiving electrical stimulation of identified human visual areas
Murphey, D. K., Maunsell, J. H. R., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0804998106 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Creating a meaningful visual perception in blind volunteers by optic nerve stimulation
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“…led to the development of many different electrodes that can be implanted subretinally (Chow and Chow 1997, Zrenner et al 1997), epiretinally (Humayun et al 1999a), around the optic nerve (Veraart et al 1998) and embedded into the cortex (Schmidt et al 1996, Normann et al 1999, Troyk et al 2003).”
BackgroundSubretinal Semiconductor Microphotodiode Array
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REVIEW ■ : Prospects for a Visual Prosthesis
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Mind Reading and Writing: The Future of Neurotechnology
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“E-mail addresse”
Implantable bioelectronic interfaces for lost nerve functions
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Measles and rubella elimination in the WHO Region for Europe: progress and challenges
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Development of a cortical visual neuroprosthesis for the blind: the relevance of neuroplasticity
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Behavioral detection of electrical microstimulation in different cortical visual areas
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“The detection thresholds we found in V1 are comparable to those found in an earlier study of detection of microstimulation in monkey V1 [26] and are comparable with thresholds for microstimulation with chronically implanted microelectrodes near V1 in a human subject [39].”
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“Several prototype devices have been tested with varying degrees of success (Bak et al. 1990; Brindley & Lewin 1968a; Dobelle 2000; Dobelle & Mladejovsky 1974; Dobelle et al. 1974, 1976; Schmidt et al. 1996).”
Intraocular Retinal Prosthesis
Jaeger, D., & Jung, R. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6675-8_100279 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
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“able to detect small spots of light (phosphenes) of differing size, color, and location [15].”
BackgroundGetting signals into the brain: visual prosthetics through thalamic microstimulation
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Gothe, J., Brandt, S. A., Irlbacher, K., Röricht, S., Sabel, B. A., & Meyer, B.-U. (2002) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awf045 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“As a simple approach to assessing activation of the visual cortex, subjects can be asked to report conscious subjective light sensations (phosphenes) elicited by focal transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the occiput.”
BackgroundMethod
- Authors
- Schmidt, E. M., Bak, M. J., Hambrecht, F. T., Kufta, C. V., O'Rourke, D. K., & Vallabhanath, P.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schmidt, E. M.
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 507-522
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2090285495
- Cited by
- 672
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 3.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine › Pain Management and Treatment
- Keywords
- visual prosthesis, intracortical microstimulation, visual cortex, phosphenes, blindness, glaucoma, two-point resolution, color perception, eye movements, threshold current, feasibility study, neuroprosthetics
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Blindness, Electric Stimulation, Female, Humans, Microelectrodes, Time Factors, Visual Cortex, Visual Perception
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