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Feasibility of a visual prosthesis for the blind based on intracortical micro stimulation of the visual cortex
Abstract
The feasibility of producing a visual prosthesis for the blind using intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) of the visual cortex was studied in a 42-year-old woman who had been totally blind for 22 years secondary to glaucoma. Thirty-eight microelectrodes were implanted in the right visual cortex, near the occipital pole, for a period of 4 months. Percepts reported as small spots of light, called phosphenes, were produced with 34 of the 38 implanted microelectrodes. Threshold currents for phosphene generation with trains of biphasic pulses were as low as 1.9 microA, and most of the microelectrodes had thresholds below 25 microA. Phosphene brightness could be modified with stimulus amplitude, frequency and pulse duration. Repeated stimulation over a period of minutes produced a gradual decrease in phosphene brightness. Phosphenes did not flicker. The apparent size of phosphenes ranged from a "pin-point' to a "nickel' (20 mm diameter coin) held at arm's length. Phosphene size usually decreased as stimulation current was increased but increased slightly as the train length (TL) was increased. At levels of stimulation near threshold, the phosphenes were often reported to have colours. As the stimulation level was increased, the phosphenes generally became white, greyish or yellowish. Individual phosphenes appeared at different distances from the subject. When two phosphenes were simultaneously generated, the apparent distances of the individual phosphenes sometimes changed to make them appear to be at about the same distance. When three or more phosphenes were simultaneously generated, they became coplanar. Except for rare occasions, phosphenes extinguished rapidly at the termination of the stimulation train. When stimulation TLs were increased beyond 1 s, phosphenes usually disappeared before the end of the train. The duration of phosphene perception could be increased by interrupting a long stimulation train with brief pauses in stimulation. Intracortical microelectrodes spaced 500 microns apart generated separate phosphenes, but microelectrodes spaced 250 microns typically did not. This two-point resolution was about five times closer than has typically been achieved with surface stimulation. With some individual microelectrodes, a second closely spaced phosphene was sometimes produced by increasing the stimulation current. Phosphenes moved with eye movements. When up to six phosphenes were simultaneously elicited, they all moved with the same relative orientation during eye movements. All phosphenes were located in the left hemi-field with the majority above the horizontal meridian. There was a clustering of most of the phosphenes within a relatively small area of visual space. The potentially greater microelectrode density and lower power requirements of ICMS compared with surface stimulation appears encouraging for a visual prosthesis. However, further studies with blind subjects are required to optimize stimulation parameters and test complex image recognition before the feasibility of a visual prosthesis based on ICMS can be established.
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“In early testing with VCPs, stimulation of multiple electrodes produced only percepts of multiple isolated phosphenes which did not combine into coherent forms (Dobelle et al., 1976; Schmidt et al., 1996), a finding we replicated in sighted participants implanted with intracranial electrodes for the pre-surgical evaluation of epilepsy (Bosking et al., 2018a).”
From Dynamic Stimulation of Visual Cortex Produces Form Vision in Sighted and Blind Humans (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“However, in the study by Schmidt et al., electrodes were implanted individually and many broke early in the experiment; therefore, only very limited testing of pattern recognition could be conducted.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, phosphene size, stimulation threshold (defined as the minimum current to produce a visible phosphene 50% of the time) and brightness depend on stimulation parameters such as the pulse width, train length, amplitude, and frequency of stimulation (Bak et al., 1990; Schmidt et al., 1996; Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bosking et al., 2017; Niketeghad et al., 2020; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Regarding the color of phosphenes, there is still some ambivalence in the reports, including descriptions of phosphene color ranging from black or white to different tones of color (Tehovnik and Slocum, 2007; Tehovnik et al., 2009; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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In the citing paper
“Our present results support previous findings (5, 10, 38, 39, 41, 42) and show that the border between V1 and V2, which is located near the occipital pole, is a suitable place for a cortical visual prosthesis (37).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
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“This 2-point resolution is closer than the 500 μ m resolution reported previously with a single electrode pair of gold wire electrodes (10), and about 5 times closer than has been achieved with surface electrodes (2-5, 7).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and stimulation via electrodes that were spaced close to each other evoked separate phosphenes”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
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“Furthermore, our simulator includes a model of the temporal dynamics, observed by Schmidt et al., 1996, accounting for response-attenuation after prolonged or repeated stimulation, as well as the delayed ‘offset’ of phosphene perception.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“Figure 4 displays the simulator’s fit on the temporal dynamics found in a previous published study by Schmidt et al., 1996.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“Note that the effects found by Fernández et al., 2021 (that were modeled by us) are consistent with findings by other studies, which report brighter phosphenes for higher stimulation strengths (Schmidt et al., 1996), and a lower stimulation efficiency (i.e. higher total charge thresholds) for longer pulse trains or higher pulse widths and frequencies (Niketeghad et al., 2020).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“However, in contrast to the findings by Schmidt et al., 1996, our simulator predicts a moderate recovery over the next 1000s.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“and in cortical prostheses the position of the artificially induced percept will shift along with eye movements (Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“Notably, increasing the stimulation amplitudes can lead the appearance to shift from colored to yellowish or white (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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In the citing paper
“Dynamic optimization of the stimulation may be necessary to counteract unwanted effects such as response fading due to accommodation after repeated or prolonged stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996), or delayed phosphene perception after stimulation on- and offset.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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In the citing paper
“The appearance of phosphenes in our simulation (white, round, soft dots of light) are largely in line with previous reports on intracortical stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996; Bak et al., 1990; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
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“The work of Schmidt et al. (10) showed that microstimulation via microelectrodes that penetrated the visual cortex could help to mitigate some of these limitations.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
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In the citing paper
“Phosphenes could be evoked with stimulation currents in the tens of microamps range”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“as has been observed in both the retinal70 and cortical literature34”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Previous experimental studies have found it extremely difficult to generate recognizable shapes through stimulation of multiple electrodes34,84.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Third, although our model fits current temporal data reasonably well and includes desensitization due to the refractory period, it is worth noting that various studies have shown longer-scale desensitization with prolonged stimulation in both human34 and macaque89 and this is also observed with retinal prostheses70.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Penetrating electrodes require orders of magnitude less current and produce smaller phosphenes (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
In the citing paper
“This distance reduces the spatial resolution of artificial vision [99], and high currents might be unsafe due to the risk of seizures [88].”
From Advances in visual prostheses: engineering and biological challenges (2022) · cites this paper as [99]
In the citing paper
“Increasing the electrode density increases the risk of having a stimulation cross-talk and current summation when neighbouring electrodes are activated simultaneously.”
From Three-dimensional multilayer concentric bipolar electrodes restrict spatial activation in optic nerve stimulation (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
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Facial Recognition Using Simulated Prosthetic Pixelized Vision
Thompson, R. W., Barnett, G. D., Humayun, M. S., & Dagnelie, G. (2003) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.03-0341 · Cited by 180
Nanduri, D., Fine, I., Horsager, A., Boynton, G. M., Humayun, M. S., Greenberg, R. J., & Weiland, J. D. (2012) · Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.11-8401 · Cited by 163
Consciousness and complexity: a consilience of evidence
Sarasso, S., Casali, A. G., Casarotto, S., Rosanova, M., Sinigaglia, C., & Massimini, M. (2021) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niab023 · Cited by 171
“…volume required to elicit phosphenes of different colors roughly corresponds to the size of a cortical minicolumn (Schmidt et al. 1996), whereas such color discrimination is lost when the activated volume is increased to the size of an hypercolumn (Tehovnik and…”
A model for intracortical visual prosthesis research
Troyk, P., Bak, M., Berg, J., Bradley, D., Cogan, S., Erickson, R., Kufta, C., McCreery, D., Schmidt, E., & Towle, V. (2003) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1046/j.1525-1594.2003.07308.x · Cited by 166
Self-citationPlasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposited silicon carbide as an implantable dielectric coating
Cogan, S. F., Edell, D. J., Guzelian, A. A., Liu, Y. P., & Edell, R. (2003) · Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A · doi:10.1002/jbm.a.10152 · Cited by 170
Technology Insight: future neuroprosthetic therapies for disorders of the nervous system
Normann, R. A. (2007) · Nature Clinical Practice Neurology · doi:10.1038/ncpneuro0556 · Cited by 170
Integrated circuit amplifiers for multi-electrode intracortical recording
Jochum, T., Denison, T., & Wolf, P. D. (2009) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/6/1/012001 · Cited by 169
“Microprobes have been chronically implanted in few patients (Schmidt et al 1996, Ulbert et al 2001, Kennedy et al 2004, Hochberg et al 2006, McCreery 2008), and no data have been released on the dc probe current and the ensuing damage, if any.”
MethodStudies of Neuroplasticity With Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Cohen, L. G., Ziemann, U., Chen, R. E., Claßen, J., Hallett, M., Gerloff, C. P., & Bütefisch, C. M. (1998) · Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1097/00004691-199807000-00003 · Cited by 166
PANAYIOTOPOULOS, C. P. (1999) · Epileptic Disorders · doi:10.1684/j.1950-6945.1999.tb00326.x · Cited by 166
Gerontechnology in perspective
Bouma, H., Fozard, J. L., Bouwhuis, D. G., & Taipale, V. T. (2007) · Gerontechnology · doi:10.4017/gt.2007.06.04.003.00 · Cited by 165
Visually Guided Performance of Simple Tasks Using Simulated Prosthetic Vision
Hayes, J. S., Yin, V. T., Piyathaisere, D. V., Weiland, J. D., Humayun, M. S., & Dagnelie, G. (2003) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1046/j.1525-1594.2003.07309.x · Cited by 164
Vision restoration after brain and retina damage: The “residual vision activation theory”
Sabel, B. A., Henrich‐Noack, P., Fedorov, A. B., & Gall, C. (2011) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-53355-5.00013-0 · Cited by 166
Finite Element Analysis of the Current-Density and Electric Field Generated by Metal Microelectrodes
McIntyre, C. C., & Grill, W. M. (2001) · Annals of Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1114/1.1352640 · Cited by 164
Klink, P. C., Dagnino, B., Gariel-Mathis, M.-A., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2017) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.05.033 · Cited by 135
“Finally, we examined whether the influence of V1 microstimulation on area V4 depends on the perception of phosphenes, artificial percepts of light at the RF location (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundEvaluation of novel stimulus waveforms for deep brain stimulation
Foutz, T. J., & McIntyre, C. C. (2010) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/7/6/066008 · Cited by 167
Non-rectangular waveforms for neural stimulation with practical electrodes
Sahin, M., & Tie, Y. (2007) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/4/3/008 · Cited by 157
Development and Implantation of a Minimally Invasive Wireless Subretinal Neurostimulator
Shire, D. B., Kelly, S. K., Chen, J., Doyle, P., Gingerich, M. D., Cogan, S. F., Drohan, W. A., Mendoza, O., Theogarajan, L. S., Wyatt, J. L., et al. (2009) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2009.2021401 · Cited by 156
Visuotopic Mapping Through a Multichannel Stimulating Implant in Primate V1
Bradley, D. C., Troyk, P. R., Berg, J. A., Bak, M., Cogan, S. F., Erickson, R. K., Kufta, C. V., Mascaro, M., McCreery, D. B., Schmidt, E. M., et al. (2004) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.01213.2003 · Cited by 159
Self-citationImplantable microcoils for intracortical magnetic stimulation
Lee, S. W., Fallegger, F., Casse, B. D. F., & Fried, S. I. (2016) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.1600889 · Cited by 151
Chapter 16. Sensory substitution
Lenay, C., Gapenne, O., Hanneton, S., Marque, C. K., & Genouëlle, C. (2003) · Advances in consciousness research · doi:10.1075/aicr.53.22len · Cited by 150
Dynamics of Depolarization and Hyperpolarization in the Frontal Cortex and Saccade Goal
Seidemann, E., Arieli, A., Grinvald, A., & Slovin, H. (2002) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1066641 · Cited by 148
Toward the development of a cortically based visual neuroprosthesis
Normann, R. A., Greger, B. A., House, P., Romero, S. F., Pelayo, F., & Fernandez, E. (2009) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/6/3/035001 · Cited by 143
Cogan, S. F., Troyk, P. R., Ehrlich, J., Plante, T. D., & Detlefsen, D. E. (2006) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2005.862572 · Cited by 138
“are used extensively for stimulation studies in cortex [6]–[9], the cochlear nucleus [10] and spinal cord [11].”
Saccadic eye movements evoked by microstimulation of striate cortex
Tehovnik, E. J., Slocum, W. M., & Schiller, P. H. (2003) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02489.x · Cited by 140
“A phosphene has been described as a bright, circular white spot of light varying in size of up to roughly 2 degrees of visual angle (Dobelle & Mladejovsky, 1974; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSputtered iridium oxide films (SIROFs) for low-impedance neural stimulation and recording electrodes
Cogan, S. F., Plante, T. D., & Ehrlich, J. (2005) · The 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society · doi:10.1109/iembs.2004.1404158 · Cited by 138
McCreery, D. B., Pikov, V., & Troyk, P. R. (2010) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/7/3/036005 · Cited by 141
A floating metal microelectrode array for chronic implantation
Musallam, S., Bak, M. J., Troyk, P. R., & Andersen, R. A. (2006) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.09.005 · Cited by 137
Self-citationInsights into cortical mechanisms of behavior from microstimulation experiments
Histed, M. H., Ni, A. M., & Maunsell, J. H. R. (2012) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.01.006 · Cited by 136
Théoret, H., Merabet, L. B., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2004) · Journal of Physiology-Paris · doi:10.1016/j.jphysparis.2004.03.009 · Cited by 136
Electrical stimulation of cranial nerves in cognition and disease
Adair, D., Truong, D. Q., Esmaeilpour, Z., Gebodh, N., Borges, H., Ho, L., Bremner, J. D., Badran, B. W., Napadow, V., Clark, V. P., et al. (2020) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2020.02.019 · Cited by 136
A Highly Flexible System for Microstimulation of the Visual Cortex: Design and Implementation
Coulombe, J., Sawan, M., & Gervais, J.-F. (2007) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2007.916026 · Cited by 129
The Emerging World Of Motor Neuroprosthetics: a Neurosurgical Perspective
Leuthardt, E. C., Schalk, G., Moran, D. W., & Ojemann, J. G. (2006) · Neurosurgery · doi:10.1227/01.neu.0000221506.06947.ac · Cited by 129
Kolarcik, C. L., Catt, K., Rost, E., Albrecht, I. N., Bourbeau, D., Du, Z., Kozai, T. D. Y., Luo, X., Weber, D. J., & Tracy Cui, X. (2015) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/12/1/016008 · Cited by 126
Maynard, E. M. (2001) · Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.3.1.145 · Cited by 126
“Further development in a cortically based prosthesis requires: ( a) a better understanding of the biocompatibility of these structures in primates and includes determining the nature of pial proliferation reported by Rousche & Normann (68, 74), and Maynard et al (67), (b) behavioral experiments in primates to determin…”
BackgroundInfluentialGanji, M., Tanaka, A., Gilja, V., Halgren, E., & Dayeh, S. A. (2017) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.201703019 · Cited by 127
Kim, S., Callier, T., Tabot, G. A., Gaunt, R. A., Tenore, F. V., & Bensmaia, S. J. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1509265112 · Cited by 125
Brain Machine Interfaces for Vision Restoration: The Current State of Cortical Visual Prosthetics
Niketeghad, S., & Pouratian, N. (2018) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-018-0660-1 · Cited by 131
Electrical Stimulation of the Proprioceptive Cortex (Area 3a) Used to Instruct a Behaving Monkey
London, B. M., Jordan, L. R., Jackson, C. R., & Miller, L. E. (2008) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2007.907544 · Cited by 124
“Attempts have also been made to deliver visual and auditory percepts by electrical stimulation of primary visual [12], [13] and auditory [14], [15] cortex, respectively.”
BackgroundTheta-burst microstimulation in the human entorhinal area improves memory specificity
Titiz, A. S., Hill, M. R. H., Mankin, E. A., Aghajan, Z. M., Eliashiv, D. S., Tchemodanov, N., Maoz, U., Stern, J. M., Tran, M. E., Schuette, P. J., et al. (2017) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.29515 · Cited by 127
“Chronic neural implants that use macrostimulation to treat conditions such as Parkinson’s Disease and Epilepsy have become increasingly common ( Fisher and Velasco, 2014 ; Schuepbach et al., 2013 ).”
Retinal and Optic Nerve Diseases
Margalit, E., & Sadda, S. R. (2003) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1046/j.1525-1594.2003.07304.x · Cited by 121
Microsystem technologies for implantable applications
Receveur, R. A. M., Lindemans, F. W., & de Rooij, N. F. (2007) · Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering · doi:10.1088/0960-1317/17/5/r02 · Cited by 118
“Another group uses an array of 38 microelectrodes spaced 500 μm apart [172].”
Perceiving electrical stimulation of identified human visual areas
Murphey, D. K., Maunsell, J. H. R., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0804998106 · Cited by 109
Creating a meaningful visual perception in blind volunteers by optic nerve stimulation
Brelen, M. E., Duret, F., Gérard, B., Delbeke, J., & Veraart, C. (2005) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/2/1/004 · Cited by 115
“…led to the development of many different electrodes that can be implanted subretinally (Chow and Chow 1997, Zrenner et al 1997), epiretinally (Humayun et al 1999a), around the optic nerve (Veraart et al 1998) and embedded into the cortex (Schmidt et al 1996, Normann et al 1999, Troyk et al 2003).”
BackgroundSubretinal Semiconductor Microphotodiode Array
Peyman, G. A., Ay, C., Liang, C., Chow, V. Y., Perlman, J. I., & Peachey, N. S. (1998) · Ophthalmic surgery, lasers & imaging retina · doi:10.3928/1542-8877-19980301-10 · Cited by 115
REVIEW ■ : Prospects for a Visual Prosthesis
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Mind Reading and Writing: The Future of Neurotechnology
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“E-mail addresse”
Implantable bioelectronic interfaces for lost nerve functions
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Measles and rubella elimination in the WHO Region for Europe: progress and challenges
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Development of a cortical visual neuroprosthesis for the blind: the relevance of neuroplasticity
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Behavioral detection of electrical microstimulation in different cortical visual areas
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“The detection thresholds we found in V1 are comparable to those found in an earlier study of detection of microstimulation in monkey V1 [26] and are comparable with thresholds for microstimulation with chronically implanted microelectrodes near V1 in a human subject [39].”
ResultBosking, W. H., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2017) · Annual Review of Vision Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-vision-111815-114525 · Cited by 93
“Several prototype devices have been tested with varying degrees of success (Bak et al. 1990; Brindley & Lewin 1968a; Dobelle 2000; Dobelle & Mladejovsky 1974; Dobelle et al. 1974, 1976; Schmidt et al. 1996).”
Intraocular Retinal Prosthesis
Jaeger, D., & Jung, R. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6675-8_100279 · Cited by 104
Weber, D. J., London, B. M., Hokanson, J., Ayers, C. A., Gaunt, R. A., Torres, R. R., Zaaimi, B., & Miller, L. E. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2011.2163145 · Cited by 104
“able to detect small spots of light (phosphenes) of differing size, color, and location [15].”
BackgroundGetting signals into the brain: visual prosthetics through thalamic microstimulation
Pezaris, J. S., & Eskandar, E. N. (2009) · Neurosurgical FOCUS · doi:10.3171/2009.4.focus0986 · Cited by 98
Gothe, J., Brandt, S. A., Irlbacher, K., Röricht, S., Sabel, B. A., & Meyer, B.-U. (2002) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awf045 · Cited by 100
“As a simple approach to assessing activation of the visual cortex, subjects can be asked to report conscious subjective light sensations (phosphenes) elicited by focal transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the occiput.”
BackgroundMethod
Metadata
- Authors
- Schmidt, E. M., Bak, M. J., Hambrecht, F. T., Kufta, C. V., O'Rourke, D. K., & Vallabhanath, P.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schmidt, E. M.
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 507-522
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2090285495
- Cited by
- 672
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 3.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine › Pain Management and Treatment
- Keywords
- visual prosthesis, intracortical microstimulation, visual cortex, phosphenes, blindness, glaucoma, two-point resolution, color perception, eye movements, threshold current, feasibility study, neuroprosthetics
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Blindness, Electric Stimulation, Female, Humans, Microelectrodes, Time Factors, Visual Cortex, Visual Perception
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