The DOI matches its Crossref record; 17 of the 17 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Feasibility of a visual prosthesis for the blind based on intracortical micro stimulation of the visual cortex
Abstract
The feasibility of producing a visual prosthesis for the blind using intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) of the visual cortex was studied in a 42-year-old woman who had been totally blind for 22 years secondary to glaucoma. Thirty-eight microelectrodes were implanted in the right visual cortex, near the occipital pole, for a period of 4 months. Percepts reported as small spots of light, called phosphenes, were produced with 34 of the 38 implanted microelectrodes. Threshold currents for phosphene generation with trains of biphasic pulses were as low as 1.9 microA, and most of the microelectrodes had thresholds below 25 microA. Phosphene brightness could be modified with stimulus amplitude, frequency and pulse duration. Repeated stimulation over a period of minutes produced a gradual decrease in phosphene brightness. Phosphenes did not flicker. The apparent size of phosphenes ranged from a "pin-point' to a "nickel' (20 mm diameter coin) held at arm's length. Phosphene size usually decreased as stimulation current was increased but increased slightly as the train length (TL) was increased. At levels of stimulation near threshold, the phosphenes were often reported to have colours. As the stimulation level was increased, the phosphenes generally became white, greyish or yellowish. Individual phosphenes appeared at different distances from the subject. When two phosphenes were simultaneously generated, the apparent distances of the individual phosphenes sometimes changed to make them appear to be at about the same distance. When three or more phosphenes were simultaneously generated, they became coplanar. Except for rare occasions, phosphenes extinguished rapidly at the termination of the stimulation train. When stimulation TLs were increased beyond 1 s, phosphenes usually disappeared before the end of the train. The duration of phosphene perception could be increased by interrupting a long stimulation train with brief pauses in stimulation. Intracortical microelectrodes spaced 500 microns apart generated separate phosphenes, but microelectrodes spaced 250 microns typically did not. This two-point resolution was about five times closer than has typically been achieved with surface stimulation. With some individual microelectrodes, a second closely spaced phosphene was sometimes produced by increasing the stimulation current. Phosphenes moved with eye movements. When up to six phosphenes were simultaneously elicited, they all moved with the same relative orientation during eye movements. All phosphenes were located in the left hemi-field with the majority above the horizontal meridian. There was a clustering of most of the phosphenes within a relatively small area of visual space. The potentially greater microelectrode density and lower power requirements of ICMS compared with surface stimulation appears encouraging for a visual prosthesis. However, further studies with blind subjects are required to optimize stimulation parameters and test complex image recognition before the feasibility of a visual prosthesis based on ICMS can be established.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In early testing with VCPs, stimulation of multiple electrodes produced only percepts of multiple isolated phosphenes which did not combine into coherent forms (Dobelle et al., 1976; Schmidt et al., 1996), a finding we replicated in sighted participants implanted with intracranial electrodes for the pre-surgical evaluation of epilepsy (Bosking et al., 2018a).”
From Dynamic Stimulation of Visual Cortex Produces Form Vision in Sighted and Blind Humans (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“However, in the study by Schmidt et al., electrodes were implanted individually and many broke early in the experiment; therefore, only very limited testing of pattern recognition could be conducted.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, phosphene size, stimulation threshold (defined as the minimum current to produce a visible phosphene 50% of the time) and brightness depend on stimulation parameters such as the pulse width, train length, amplitude, and frequency of stimulation (Bak et al., 1990; Schmidt et al., 1996; Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bosking et al., 2017; Niketeghad et al., 2020; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Regarding the color of phosphenes, there is still some ambivalence in the reports, including descriptions of phosphene color ranging from black or white to different tones of color (Tehovnik and Slocum, 2007; Tehovnik et al., 2009; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Our present results support previous findings (5, 10, 38, 39, 41, 42) and show that the border between V1 and V2, which is located near the occipital pole, is a suitable place for a cortical visual prosthesis (37).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This 2-point resolution is closer than the 500 μ m resolution reported previously with a single electrode pair of gold wire electrodes (10), and about 5 times closer than has been achieved with surface electrodes (2-5, 7).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and stimulation via electrodes that were spaced close to each other evoked separate phosphenes”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, our simulator includes a model of the temporal dynamics, observed by Schmidt et al., 1996, accounting for response-attenuation after prolonged or repeated stimulation, as well as the delayed ‘offset’ of phosphene perception.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Figure 4 displays the simulator’s fit on the temporal dynamics found in a previous published study by Schmidt et al., 1996.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Note that the effects found by Fernández et al., 2021 (that were modeled by us) are consistent with findings by other studies, which report brighter phosphenes for higher stimulation strengths (Schmidt et al., 1996), and a lower stimulation efficiency (i.e. higher total charge thresholds) for longer pulse trains or higher pulse widths and frequencies (Niketeghad et al., 2020).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, in contrast to the findings by Schmidt et al., 1996, our simulator predicts a moderate recovery over the next 1000s.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and in cortical prostheses the position of the artificially induced percept will shift along with eye movements (Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Notably, increasing the stimulation amplitudes can lead the appearance to shift from colored to yellowish or white (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Dynamic optimization of the stimulation may be necessary to counteract unwanted effects such as response fading due to accommodation after repeated or prolonged stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996), or delayed phosphene perception after stimulation on- and offset.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The appearance of phosphenes in our simulation (white, round, soft dots of light) are largely in line with previous reports on intracortical stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996; Bak et al., 1990; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The work of Schmidt et al. (10) showed that microstimulation via microelectrodes that penetrated the visual cortex could help to mitigate some of these limitations.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Phosphenes could be evoked with stimulation currents in the tens of microamps range”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“as has been observed in both the retinal70 and cortical literature34”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Previous experimental studies have found it extremely difficult to generate recognizable shapes through stimulation of multiple electrodes34,84.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Third, although our model fits current temporal data reasonably well and includes desensitization due to the refractory period, it is worth noting that various studies have shown longer-scale desensitization with prolonged stimulation in both human34 and macaque89 and this is also observed with retinal prostheses70.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Penetrating electrodes require orders of magnitude less current and produce smaller phosphenes (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
In the citing paper
“This distance reduces the spatial resolution of artificial vision [99], and high currents might be unsafe due to the risk of seizures [88].”
From Advances in visual prostheses: engineering and biological challenges (2022) · cites this paper as [99]
In the citing paper
“Increasing the electrode density increases the risk of having a stimulation cross-talk and current summation when neighbouring electrodes are activated simultaneously.”
From Three-dimensional multilayer concentric bipolar electrodes restrict spatial activation in optic nerve stimulation (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
The sensations produced by electrical stimulation of the visual cortex
Brindley, G. S., & Lewin, W. S. (1968) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1968.sp008519 · Cited by 1,170
Dobelle, W. H., & Mladejovsky, M. G. (1974) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1974.sp010766 · Cited by 468
Dobelle, W. H., Mladejovsky, M. G., & Girvin, J. P. (1974) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.183.4123.440 · Cited by 440
Visual sensations produced by intracortical microstimulation of the human occipital cortex
Bak, M., Girvin, J. P., Hambrecht, F. T., Kufta, C. V., Loeb, G. E., & Schmidt, E. M. (1990) · Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing · doi:10.1007/bf02442682 · Cited by 299
Self-citationParylene as a Chronically Stable, Reproducible Microelectrode Insulator
Loeb, G. E., Bak, M. J., Salcman, M., & Schmidt, E. M. (1977) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.1977.326115 · Cited by 258
Self-citation“Braille” reading by a blind volunteer by visual cortex stimulation
DOBELLE, W. H., MLADEJOVSKY, M. G., EVANS, J. R., ROBERTS, T. S., & GIRVIN, J. P. (1976) · Nature · doi:10.1038/259111a0 · Cited by 253
Activated Ir: An Electrode Suitable for Reversible Charge Injection in Saline Solution
Robblee, L. S., Lefko, J. L., & Brummer, S. B. (1983) · Journal of The Electrochemical Society · doi:10.1149/1.2119793 · Cited by 228
Latency functions in human vision
Mansfield, R. J. W. (1973) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/0042-6989(73)90224-1 · Cited by 150
Geddes, L. A., & Bourland, J. D. (1985) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.1985.325456 · Cited by 128
Simple reaction time as a function of stimulus intensity in decibels of light and sound.
Kohfeld, D. L. (1971) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0030891 · Cited by 119
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- [16]16. Pollen DA. Some perceptual effects of electrical stimulation of the visual cortex in man. In: Tower DB, editor. The nervous system, Vol. 2: the clinical neurosciences. New York: Raven Press, 1975: 519-28.
- [18]18. Rushton DN, Brindley GS. Short-and long-term stability of cortical electrical phosphenes. In: Rose FC, editor. Physiological aspects of clinical neurology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1977: 123-53.
- [20]20. Schmidt EM, Bragg JA. Simple visual reaction time as a means of quantifying brightness of electrically produced phosphenes. Vision Res 1995. In press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–400 of 673
A low-cost multichannel wireless neural stimulation system for freely roaming animals
Alam, M., Chen, X., & Fernández, E. (2013) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/10/6/066010 · Cited by 18
A Benchtop System to Assess Cortical Neural Interface Micromechanics
Das, R., Gandhi, D., Krishnan, S., Saggere, L., & Rousche, P. J. (2007) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2007.897139 · Cited by 19
Real-Time Adaptive Microstimulation Increases Reliability of Electrically Evoked Cortical Potentials
Brügger, D., Butovas, S., Bogdan, M., & Schwarz, C. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2011.2107512 · Cited by 19
“Second, cortical prostheses, in any case, will need to deliver fast repetitive stimulation to enable a continuous percept [ 8 ], [27], [28], and therefore, a short time constant of the precision effect will allow stabilizing the evoked potentials in a pulse-by-pulse fashion.”
BackgroundA comparison of microelectrodes for a visual cortical prosthesis using finite element analysis
Brunton, E., Lowery, A. J., & Rajan, R. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroengineering · doi:10.3389/fneng.2012.00023 · Cited by 20
“…via electrical stimulation of the visual cortex has been demonstrated in many studies (Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Dobelle and Mladejovsky, 1974; Schmidt et al., 1996) and it is now well established that stimulating the surface of the visual cortex can induce spots of light termed phosphenes…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFocal Electrical Stimulation of Cortical Functional Networks
Hu, J. M., Qian, M. Z., Tanigawa, H., Song, X. M., & Roe, A. W. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa136 · Cited by 19
What Delay Fields Tell Us About Striate Cortex
Tehovnik, E. J., & Slocum, W. M. (2007) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00285.2007 · Cited by 19
“Phosphenes evoked from human V1 also tend to be circular, although elongated phosphenes have been reported (Brindley and Lewin 1968; Dobelle and Mladejovsky 1974; Schmidt et al. 1996).”
InfluentialTehovnik, E. J., Slocum, W. M., & Schiller, P. H. (2005) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04454.x · Cited by 19
“…were circular rather than elongated, much like visual receptive fields as determined by recording multipleunit activity at the site of stimulation and much like phosphenes induced by electrical stimulation of human V1 (Brindley & Lewin, 1968; Dobelle & Mladejovsky, 1974; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethodMagnetic insertion system for flexible electrode implantation
Jaroch, D., Ward, M. P., Chow, E. Y., Rickus, J. L., & Irazoqui, P. P. (2009) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.07.001 · Cited by 19
Image Recognition With a Limited Number of Pixels for Visual Prostheses Design
Li, S., Hu, J., Chai, X., & Peng, Y. (2011) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1111/j.1525-1594.2011.01347.x · Cited by 18
Cai, C., Li, L., Li, X., Chai, X., Sun, J., Lu, Y., Sui, X., Chen, P., & Ren, Q. (2008) · Documenta Ophthalmologica · doi:10.1007/s10633-008-9157-2 · Cited by 18
Infrared neurostimulation in ex-vivo rat sciatic nerve using 1470 nm wavelength
Cury, J., Perre, L. V., Smets, H., Stumpp, L. I., Vespa, S., Vanhoestenberghe, A., Doguet, P., Delbeke, J., Tahry, R. E., Gorza, S., et al. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abf28f · Cited by 18
“At the limit between central and peripheral targets, we find cochlear and visual prosthesis [14, 15].”
Collignon, O., Dormal, G., & Leporé, F. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139136907.007 · Cited by 18
Hughes, C. L., Stieger, K. C., Chen, K., Vazquez, A. L., & Kozai, T. D. Y. (2025) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.112707 · Cited by 17
Feyerick, M., & Dehaene, W. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2023.3287294 · Cited by 17
Adaptive Interfacial Materials and Implants for Visual Restoration
Zhu, X., Wang, F., Zhao, Q., & Du, X. (2024) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202314575 · Cited by 17
Tiwari, A., & Talwekar, R. H. (2018) · IETE Journal of Research · doi:10.1080/03772063.2017.1417750 · Cited by 17
Ryu, S. B., Paulk, A. C., Yang, J. C., Ganji, M., Dayeh, S. A., Cash, S. S., Fried, S. I., & Lee, S. W. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abbd22 · Cited by 18
“Electric stimulation of the cortex also leads to visual sensations (phosphenes), and remains under active investigation for its potential to restore sight to the blind (Schmidt et al 1996, Normann et al 2009, Tehovnik et al 2009, Beauchamp et al 2020).”
BackgroundTroyk, P. R., & Cogan, S. F. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-48610-5_1 · Cited by 17
Foster, K. R. (2004) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198567219.003.0013 · Cited by 17
Microstimulation of V1 delays visually guided saccades: a parametric evaluation of delay fields
Tehovnik, E. J., & Slocum, W. M. (2006) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-006-0625-1 · Cited by 17
“increases in current resulted in an increase in phosphene size; whereas using depth stimulation through microelectrodes, Schmidt et al. (1996) reported that increases in current often led to a decrease in phosphene size.”
BackgroundInfluentialContribution to the Theory of Prosthetic Vision
Hallum, L. E., Suaning, G. J., & Lovell, N. H. (2004) · ASAIO Journal · doi:10.1097/01.mat.0000132554.61306.97 · Cited by 17
Neurophysiological considerations for visual implants
Meikle, S. J., & Wong, Y. T. (2022) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-021-02417-2 · Cited by 15
“Colored phosphenes have been elicited using penetrating microelectrodes at current levels around the threshold level, but as the current increased, the phosphenes became white in appearance (Schmidt et al. 1996).”
BackgroundParaskevoudi, N., & Pezaris, J. S. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-86996-4 · Cited by 16
AN INTRAOCULAR CAMERA FOR RETINAL PROSTHESES: RESTORING SIGHT TO THE BLIND
Stiles, N. R. B., McIntosh, B. P., Nasiatka, P. J., HAUER, M. C., Weiland, J. D., Humayun, M. S., & Tanguay, A. R. (2010) · Advanced series in applied physics · doi:10.1142/9789814295789_0020 · Cited by 18
Simulated Prosthetic Vision: The Benefits of Computer‐Based Object Recognition and Localization
Macé, M. J. ‐., Guivarch, V., Denis, G., & Jouffrais, C. (2015) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1111/aor.12476 · Cited by 18
Voigt, M. B., & Kral, A. (2019) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab0944 · Cited by 16
“had higher current thresholds) than cathodic-leading stimulation, as seen in the auditory cortex of rats [41], monkey V1 [4] and human V1 [42].”
BackgroundFunctional reorganization of primary visual cortex induced by electrical stimulation in the cat
Warren, D. J., & Normann, R. A. (2004) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2004.09.021 · Cited by 16
Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind
Roelfsema, P. R. (2020) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.014 · Cited by 14
“Penetrating electrodes require orders of magnitude less current and produce smaller phosphenes (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundSmith, T. J., Wu, Y., Cheon, C., Khan, A. A., Srinivasan, H., Capadona, J. R., Cogan, S. F., Pancrazio, J. J., Engineer, C. T., & Hernandez-Reynoso, A. G. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1202258 · Cited by 14
“…& Normann, 1999) with an approximate threshold of 1.5 nC/ph; non-human primates between 1-2 nC/ph (Callier et al., 2015; Ferroni et al., 2017; Ni & Maunsell, 2010); and human studies ranging from 0.4-3 nC/ph (Fernández et al., 2021; Flesher et al., 2016; Hughes et al., 2021; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialA novel interface for cortical columnar neuromodulation with multipoint infrared neural stimulation
Tian, F., Zhang, Y., Schriver, K. E., Hu, J. M., & Roe, A. W. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-50375-0 · Cited by 17
“These include single site stimulation of (1) direction domains in MT to modulate perception of the direction of a field of moving dots (Salzmann & Newsome 7 ), (2) disparity tuned (near-to-far) sites in MT to bias depth perception (DeAngelis and colleagues 8 ), and (3) presumed color sites in V1 to modulate the visibi…”
BackgroundInfluentialMultielectrode and Multitransistor Arrays for In Vivo Recording
Vassanelli, S. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-8038-0_8 · Cited by 15
Central nervous system microstimulation: Towards selective micro-neuromodulation
Urdaneta, M. E., Koivuniemi, A. S., & Otto, K. J. (2017) · Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.cobme.2017.09.012 · Cited by 16
Surface stimulation of the brain with a prototype array for a visual cortex prosthesis
Chowdhury, V., Morley, J. W., & Coroneo, M. T. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2003.12.010 · Cited by 15
Electrical Microstimulation of Visual Cerebral Cortex Elevates Psychophysical Detection Thresholds
Cone, J. J., Ni, A. M., Ghose, K., & Maunsell, J. H. R. (2018) · eneuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0311-18.2018 · Cited by 13
“…not well understood (Herrington et al., 2016) and DBS electrodes are relatively large and deliver currents that are high (Butson et al., 2006) compared with those typically used when stimulating sensory structures with microelectrodes (Bak et al., 1990; Schmidt et al., 1996; Bradley et al., 2005).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRules governing perception of multiple phosphenes by human observers
Bosking, W., Foster, B., Sun, P., Beauchamp, M., & Yoshor, D. (2018) · doi:10.1101/302547 · Cited by 11
“Only one series of experiments has used penetrating electrodes to evaluate the characteristics of phosphenes generated by electrical stimulation (Bak et al. 1990, Schmidt et al. 1996).”
BackgroundA customizable multi-channel stimulator for cortical neuroprosthesis
Ferrandez, J. M., Liano, E., Bonomini, P., Martinez, J. J., Toledo, J., & Fernandez, E. (2007) · 2007 29th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society · doi:10.1109/iembs.2007.4353390 · Cited by 14
“Electrical stimulation of the visual cortex produces localized visual perceptions called phosphenes [ 5 ] [6] [7].”
BackgroundVisual cortical prosthesis: an electrical perspective
Pio‐Lopez, L., Poulkouras, R., & Depannemaecker, D. (2021) · Journal of Medical Engineering & Technology · doi:10.1080/03091902.2021.1907468 · Cited by 15
“Similarly with the results obtained with the surface electrodes, when at least 3 stimulations were simultaneously applied, phosphenes seemed coplanar for the patient and one stimulation can induce several phosphenes [84].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSun, J., Chen, Y., Chai, X., Ren, Q., & Li, L. (2013) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-013-2449-6 · Cited by 14
“A visual prosthesis is a new way in which clinicians hope to restore partial vision for blind patients [1–6].”
BackgroundLohmann, T., Kanda, H., Morimoto, T., Endo, T., Miyoshi, T., Nishida, K., Kamei, M., Walter, P., & Fujikado, T. (2015) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-015-3104-1 · Cited by 14
“, epiretinal [10–12], subretinal [13–15], suprachoroidal [7, 16–19], optic nerve [20, 21], and directly on the visual cortex [22, 23] have”
BackgroundMargalit, S. N., & Slovin, H. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-32148-0 · Cited by 14
Intracortical Microstimulation Parameters Dictate the Amplitude and Latency of Evoked Responses
Watson, M., Dancause, N., & Sawan, M. (2015) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2015.10.008 · Cited by 17
Microstimulation of V1 affects the detection of visual targets: manipulation of target contrast
Tehovnik, E. J., & Slocum, W. M. (2005) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-005-2306-x · Cited by 14
“Such low currents delivered through a microelectrode can evoke a colored phosphene (Schmidt et al. 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFrom Squid to Mammals with the HH Model through the Nav Channels’ Half-Activation-Voltage Parameter
Krouchev, N. I., Rattay, F., Sawan, M., & Vinet, A. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143570 · Cited by 15
Drebitz, E., Rausch, L.-P., & Kreiter, A. K. (2019) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2019.108549 · Cited by 14
Borda, E., Gaillet, V., Airaghi Leccardi, M. J. I., Zollinger, E. G., Moreira, R. C., & Ghezzi, D. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac6d7e · Cited by 11
Ethical Considerations for Volunteer Recruitment of Visual Prosthesis Trials
Xia, Y. X., & Ren, Q. (2012) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-012-9375-6 · Cited by 13
Császár, N., Scholkmann, F., Salari, V., Szőke, H., & Bókkon, I. (2015) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro-2015-0039 · Cited by 14
The impact of synchronous versus asynchronous electrical stimulation in artificial vision
Moleirinho, S., Whalen, A. J., Fried, S. I., & Pezaris, J. S. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abecf1 · Cited by 14
“…higher stimulation levels (e.g. Brindley and Lewin 1968a, Dobelle and Mladejovsky 1974, Humayun et al 2003, Shivdasani et al 2014, Beauchamp et al 2020) than smaller and more intimately placed ones that require lower stimulation levels (e.g. Schmidt et al 1996, DeYoe et al 2005, Wilke et al 2011).”
InfluentialSuematsu, N., Vazquez, A. L., & Kozai, T. D. Y. (2024) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad3853 · Cited by 12
Improvement in reading performance through training with simulated thalamic visual prostheses
Rassia, K. E. K., & Pezaris, J. S. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-31435-0 · Cited by 13
Phosphene Mapping Techniques for Visual Prostheses
Stronks, H. C., & Dagnelie, G. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0754-7_19 · Cited by 13
Wireless smart implants dedicated to multichannel monitoring and microstimulation
Sawan, M. (2004) · International Conference on Pervasive Services · doi:10.1109/icps.2004.36 · Cited by 13
[Electrical stimulation of the visual system. From empirical approach to visual prostheses].
Uhlig, C. E., Taneri, S., Benner, F. P., & Gerding, H. (2001) · PubMed · doi:10.1007/s003470170031 · Cited by 15
Multichannel cortical stimulation for restoration of vision
Troyk, P. R., Agnew, W. F., Bak, M., Berg, J. A., Bradley, D., Bullara, L. A., Cogan, S. F., Erickson, R. K., Kufta, C. V., McCreery, D. B., et al. (2002) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/iembs.2002.1053159 · Cited by 13
Self-citationPostmortem investigation of a human cortical visual prosthesis that was implanted for 36 years
Towle, V. L., Pytel, P., Lane, F., Plass, J., Frim, D. M., & Troyk, P. R. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab9d11 · Cited by 11
Continuity within the somatosensory cortical map facilitates learning
Lassagne, H., Goueytes, D., Shulz, D. E., Estebanez, L., & Ego‐Stengel, V. (2022) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110617 · Cited by 12
“For example, microstimulations of specific areas of the cortex in humans produce vivid visual, tactile, or auditory percepts (Dobelle et al., 1974; Penfield and Boldrey, 1937; Penfield and Rasmussen, 1950; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundLearning to Recognize Visual Objects With Microstimulation in Inferior Temporal Cortex
Kawasaki, K., & Sheinberg, D. L. (2008) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.90247.2008 · Cited by 12
Brunton, E., Winther‐Jensen, B., Wang, C., Yan, E. B., Gooie, S. H., Lowery, A. J., & Rajan, R. (2015) · Frontiers in Neuroengineering · doi:10.3389/fneng.2015.00005 · Cited by 12
Qi, J., Hu, J., Peng, Y., Ren, Q., Wang, W., & Zhan, Z. (2010) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2010.09.145 · Cited by 12
“Since then, several groups (Dobelle & Mladejowsky, 1974; Fang et al., 2005; Humayun et al., 1999; Rizzo & Wyatt, 1997; Schmidt et al., 1996) have been doing great deal of studies on the possibility of using artificial prostheses based on electrical stimulation to restore vision, and one of the major types of visual pr…”
BackgroundStudy of Tactile Perception Based on Phosphene Positioning Using Simulated Prosthetic Vision
Chai, X., Zhang, L., Li, W., Shao, F., Yang, K., & Ren, Q. (2007) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1111/j.1525-1594.2007.00469.x · Cited by 12
Brain-Machine Interfaces: Electrophysiological Challenges and Limitations
Serruya, M. D., Lega, B. C., & Zaghloul, K. A. (2011) · Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1615/critrevbiomedeng.v39.i1.20 · Cited by 13
Siu, T. L. T., & Morley, J. W. (2008) · Acta Neurochirurgica · doi:10.1007/s00701-008-1528-7 · Cited by 12
Biomimetic Strategies and Applications in the Nervous System
Winter, J. O., & Schmidt, C. E. (2002) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9780203908976.ch12 · Cited by 12
Toward an Energy-Efficient High-Voltage Compliant Visual Intracortical Multichannel Stimulator
Hasanuzzaman, M., Ghane-Motlagh, B., Mounaïm, F., Hassan, A., Raut, R., & Sawan, M. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems · doi:10.1109/tvlsi.2018.2794445 · Cited by 12
Frederick, R. A., Shih, E., Towle, V. L., Joshi‐Imre, A., Troyk, P. R., & Cogan, S. F. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.876032 · Cited by 11
“, 2004), and in human clinical studies in visual cortex (Bak et al., 1990; Hambrecht, 1995; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundComparison of electrical microstimulation artifact removal methods for high-channel-count prostheses
Wang, F., Chen, X., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2024) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2024.110169 · Cited by 11
“…2015; Davis et al., 2012; DeYoe et al., 2005; Dobelle et al., 1974, 1976; Evans et al., 1979; Mascaro et al., 2005; Murphey and Maunsell, 2007; Rose, 1977; Schmidt et al., 1996; Tehovnik et al., 2003; Tehovnik and Slocum, 2009; Torab et al., 2011; Troyk et al., 2003; Winawer and Parvizi, 2016).”
Nanotechnology in Neurosurgery
Collins, K. L., Orringer, D. A., & Patil, P. G. (2010) · Journal of Nanotechnology in Engineering and Medicine · doi:10.1115/1.4002140 · Cited by 11
Injecting Information into the Mammalian Cortex: Progress, Challenges, and Promise
Mazurek, K. A., & Schieber, M. H. (2020) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858420936253 · Cited by 12
Lane, F. J., Nitsch, K. P., & Troyk, P. R. (2015) · International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering · doi:10.1109/ner.2015.7146610 · Cited by 11
Differences of Intracranial Electrical Stimulation Thresholds in the Human Brain
Stephani, C., & Koubeissi, M. Z. (2015) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2015.02.011 · Cited by 11
A Strong Constraint to the Joint Processing of Pairs of Cortical Signals
Ghose, K., & Maunsell, J. H. R. (2012) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2186-12.2012 · Cited by 11
“…work in V1 of human subjects suggests that, when microstimulation was delivered at sites farther apart than 1 mm, subjects perceived two distinct phosphenes, whereas stimulation at sites closer than 0.5 mm was perceived as a single, brighter phosphene (Bak et al., 1990; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialNanobiomaterials for bionic eye
Ghaffari, M. S., Moztarzadeh, S., Rahmanian, F., Yazdanpanah, A., Ramedani, A., Mills, D. K., & Mozafari, M. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-41532-3.00008-7 · Cited by 11
Miyamoto, S., Suematsu, N., Umehira, Y., Hayashida, Y., & Yagi, T. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-14303-1 · Cited by 11
Toward the development of a color visual prosthesis
Towle, V. L., Pham, T. D., McCaffrey, M., Allen, D., & Troyk, P. R. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abd520 · Cited by 10
“…of the human globe (Le Roy 1755, Ayton et al 2014), and more recently by electrical © 2021 IOP Publishing Ltd stimulation of posterior human visual cortex (Krause and Schum 1931, Button and Putnam 1962, Dobelle and Mladejovsky 1974, Hambrecht 1995, Schmidt et al 1996, Murphy and Maunsell 2009).”
BackgroundPerspectives of optic nerve prostheses
Lane, F. J., Nitsch, K. P., HUYCK, M. H., Troyk, P. R., & Schug, K. (2014) · Disability and Rehabilitation Assistive Technology · doi:10.3109/17483107.2014.961178 · Cited by 11
“The concept of a cortical visual prosthesis for individuals who are blind is based on studies that demonstrated that localized electrical stimulation of the human visual cortex can produce phosphenes, which are perceptions of small dots of light in the visual field [13].”
BackgroundSrivastava, N., & Troyk, P. R. (2006) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/iembs.2006.259987 · Cited by 11
“It was shown that currents to elicit phosphenes by intracortical microstimulation are ten to hundred times lower than those by non-penetrating electrodes [ 2 ][10].”
BackgroundThe mechanism of human color vision and potential implanted devices for artificial color vision
Zhang, B., Zhang, R., Zhao, J., Yang, J., & Xu, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2024.1408087 · Cited by 12
Intracortical microstimulation of human somatosensory cortex induces natural perceptual biases
Greenspon, C. M., Shelchkova, N. D., Hobbs, T. G., Bensmaı̈a, S. J., & Gaunt, R. A. (2024) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2024.10.005 · Cited by 11
“In the case of ICMS in the visual cortex, this usually results in phosphenes [20] – bright spots in the visual field – while in the somatosensory cortex a variety of sensations such as pressure, buzzing or tapping can be evoked depending on the electrode [21,22].”
BackgroundClinical Progress and Optimization of Information Processing in Artificial Visual Prostheses
Wang, J., Zhao, R., Li, P., Fang, Z., Li, Q., Han, Y., Zhou, R., & Zhang, Y. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22176544 · Cited by 11
Hayashida, Y., Kozo, T., Ishikawa, N., Okazaki, Y. O., Tamas, F., Tanaka, H., & Yagi, T. (2014) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2014.6943613 · Cited by 10
“For instance, the perceived phosphenes faded in less than one second during the single continuous pulse train with the inter-pulse frequency of 75-200 Hz; whereas the phosphene lasted for ~2 sec when the intermittent interval of ~25 msec was inserted between the pulse trains of 125 msec duration each with the same int…”
A Structure-Function Mechanism for Schizophrenia
Vadakkan, K. I. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00108 · Cited by 10
“OF INTERNAL SENSATIONS Artificial stimulation of neurons within the nervous system can induce different hallucinations (Selimbeyoglu and Parvizi, 2010).”
BackgroundComputer-controlled electrical stimulation for quantitative mapping of human cortical function
Dulay, M. F., Murphey, D. K., Sun, P., David, Y. B., Maunsell, J. H. R., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2008) · Journal of neurosurgery · doi:10.3171/2008.2.jns17666 · Cited by 10
Mazurek, K. A., Holinski, B. J., Everaert, D. G., Mushahwar, V. K., & Etienne‐Cummings, R. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2015.2501419 · Cited by 10
Neurobiologia na tropie świadomości
Koch, C. (2008) · Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego eBooks · doi:10.31338/uw.9788323527107 · Cited by 11
Implantation and Extraction of Penetrating Electrode Arrays in Minipig Retinas
Chen, J., Poulaki, V., Kim, S.-J., Eldred, W. D., Kane, S. R., Gingerich, M. D., Shire, D. B., Jensen, R. J., DeWalt, G. J., Kaplan, H. J., et al. (2020) · Translational Vision Science & Technology · doi:10.1167/tvst.9.5.19 · Cited by 10
Recognition of Similar Objects Using Simulated Prosthetic Vision
Hu, J., Xia, P., Gu, C., Qi, J., Li, S., & Peng, Y. (2013) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1111/aor.12147 · Cited by 10
Weiland, J. D., & Humayun, M. S. (2008) · Proceedings of the IEEE · Cited by 10
Finite Element Analysis of a Floating Microstimulator
Şahin, M., & Ur-Rahman, S. S. (2007) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2007.897027 · Cited by 10
Mazurek, K. A., & Schieber, M. H. (2019) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643294.2019.1609918 · Cited by 10
“Intracortical stimulation of primary visual cortex in awake humans can produce phosphenes of highly saturated colour, but as the stimulus intensity is increased humans report phosphenes of yellow, white, or grey (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundControlling arterial blood pressure using a computer???brain interface
Gotoh, T. M., Tanaka, K., & Morita, H. (2005) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200503150-00008 · Cited by 10
“So far, the development of CBI controllers has been based on an arbitrary approach with no knowledge of the relationship between input and output [15–20].”
BackgroundAN IMPLANT FOR A VISUAL CORTICAL STIMULATOR
Coulombe, J., Hu, Y., Gervais, J.-F., & Sawan, M. (2011) · Proceedings of the Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA) · doi:10.24908/pceea.v0i0.4022 · Cited by 10
de Ruyter van Steveninck, J., Nipshagen, M., van Gerven, M., Güçlü, U., Güçlüturk, Y., & van Wezel, R. (2024) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad357d · Cited by 8
Local field potential phase modulates neural responses to intracortical electrical stimulation
Allison-Walker, T. J., Ann Hagan, M., Chiang Price, N. S., & Tat Wong, Y. (2020) · 2020 42nd Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc44109.2020.9176186 · Cited by 9
“This design enables reduced perceptual charge thresholds and electrical field spread due to electrode proximity to the targeted neural populations, as well as improved phosphene stability and control [5].”
BackgroundGrani, F., Soto‐Sánchez, C., Doblado, A. R., López-Peco, R., González-López, P., & Fernández, E. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adv8846 · Cited by 10
Neural mechanisms underlying intracortical microstimulation for sensory restoration
Hughes, C. L., Chen, X., Grill, W. M., & Kozai, T. D. Y. (2026) · Nature Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1038/s41551-025-01583-6 · Cited by 11
“More recent studies demonstrated that intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) could be used similarly to evoke visual percepts 10,11 , prompting investigation of microstimulation for sensory restoration.”
Raising the stakes for cortical visual prostheses
Beauchamp, M. S., Bosking, W. H., Oswalt, D. N., & Yoshor, D. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci154983 · Cited by 9
Grade-control outdoor turning flight of robo-pigeon with quantitative stimulus parameters
Fang, K., Mei, H., Tang, Y., Wang, W., Wang, H., Wang, Z., & Dai, Z. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurorobotics · doi:10.3389/fnbot.2023.1143601 · Cited by 9
Rocca, A., Lehner, C., Wekesa, E., Luna, E., Fernández-Cornejo, V., Abarca-Olivas, J., Soto‐Sánchez, C., Fernández-Jover, E., & González-López, P. (2023) · Journal of neurosurgery · doi:10.3171/2023.8.jns23772 · Cited by 9
Low-power high-voltage charge pumps for implantable microstimulators
Kar, G. C., & Sawan, M. (2012) · IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems proceedings · doi:10.1109/iscas.2012.6271739 · Cited by 9
Rat behavioral model for high-throughput parametric studies of intracortical microstimulation
Koivuniemi, A. S., Regele, O. B., Brenner, J. H., & Otto, K. J. (2011) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/iembs.2011.6091859 · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Schmidt, E. M., Bak, M. J., Hambrecht, F. T., Kufta, C. V., O'Rourke, D. K., & Vallabhanath, P.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schmidt, E. M.
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 507-522
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2090285495
- Cited by
- 672
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 3.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine › Pain Management and Treatment
- Keywords
- visual prosthesis, intracortical microstimulation, visual cortex, phosphenes, blindness, glaucoma, two-point resolution, color perception, eye movements, threshold current, feasibility study, neuroprosthetics
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Blindness, Electric Stimulation, Female, Humans, Microelectrodes, Time Factors, Visual Cortex, Visual Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
