The DOI matches its Crossref record; 17 of the 17 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Feasibility of a visual prosthesis for the blind based on intracortical micro stimulation of the visual cortex
Abstract
The feasibility of producing a visual prosthesis for the blind using intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) of the visual cortex was studied in a 42-year-old woman who had been totally blind for 22 years secondary to glaucoma. Thirty-eight microelectrodes were implanted in the right visual cortex, near the occipital pole, for a period of 4 months. Percepts reported as small spots of light, called phosphenes, were produced with 34 of the 38 implanted microelectrodes. Threshold currents for phosphene generation with trains of biphasic pulses were as low as 1.9 microA, and most of the microelectrodes had thresholds below 25 microA. Phosphene brightness could be modified with stimulus amplitude, frequency and pulse duration. Repeated stimulation over a period of minutes produced a gradual decrease in phosphene brightness. Phosphenes did not flicker. The apparent size of phosphenes ranged from a "pin-point' to a "nickel' (20 mm diameter coin) held at arm's length. Phosphene size usually decreased as stimulation current was increased but increased slightly as the train length (TL) was increased. At levels of stimulation near threshold, the phosphenes were often reported to have colours. As the stimulation level was increased, the phosphenes generally became white, greyish or yellowish. Individual phosphenes appeared at different distances from the subject. When two phosphenes were simultaneously generated, the apparent distances of the individual phosphenes sometimes changed to make them appear to be at about the same distance. When three or more phosphenes were simultaneously generated, they became coplanar. Except for rare occasions, phosphenes extinguished rapidly at the termination of the stimulation train. When stimulation TLs were increased beyond 1 s, phosphenes usually disappeared before the end of the train. The duration of phosphene perception could be increased by interrupting a long stimulation train with brief pauses in stimulation. Intracortical microelectrodes spaced 500 microns apart generated separate phosphenes, but microelectrodes spaced 250 microns typically did not. This two-point resolution was about five times closer than has typically been achieved with surface stimulation. With some individual microelectrodes, a second closely spaced phosphene was sometimes produced by increasing the stimulation current. Phosphenes moved with eye movements. When up to six phosphenes were simultaneously elicited, they all moved with the same relative orientation during eye movements. All phosphenes were located in the left hemi-field with the majority above the horizontal meridian. There was a clustering of most of the phosphenes within a relatively small area of visual space. The potentially greater microelectrode density and lower power requirements of ICMS compared with surface stimulation appears encouraging for a visual prosthesis. However, further studies with blind subjects are required to optimize stimulation parameters and test complex image recognition before the feasibility of a visual prosthesis based on ICMS can be established.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In early testing with VCPs, stimulation of multiple electrodes produced only percepts of multiple isolated phosphenes which did not combine into coherent forms (Dobelle et al., 1976; Schmidt et al., 1996), a finding we replicated in sighted participants implanted with intracranial electrodes for the pre-surgical evaluation of epilepsy (Bosking et al., 2018a).”
From Dynamic Stimulation of Visual Cortex Produces Form Vision in Sighted and Blind Humans (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“However, in the study by Schmidt et al., electrodes were implanted individually and many broke early in the experiment; therefore, only very limited testing of pattern recognition could be conducted.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, phosphene size, stimulation threshold (defined as the minimum current to produce a visible phosphene 50% of the time) and brightness depend on stimulation parameters such as the pulse width, train length, amplitude, and frequency of stimulation (Bak et al., 1990; Schmidt et al., 1996; Winawer and Parvizi, 2016; Bosking et al., 2017; Niketeghad et al., 2020; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Regarding the color of phosphenes, there is still some ambivalence in the reports, including descriptions of phosphene color ranging from black or white to different tones of color (Tehovnik and Slocum, 2007; Tehovnik et al., 2009; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Our present results support previous findings (5, 10, 38, 39, 41, 42) and show that the border between V1 and V2, which is located near the occipital pole, is a suitable place for a cortical visual prosthesis (37).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This 2-point resolution is closer than the 500 μ m resolution reported previously with a single electrode pair of gold wire electrodes (10), and about 5 times closer than has been achieved with surface electrodes (2-5, 7).”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and stimulation via electrodes that were spaced close to each other evoked separate phosphenes”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, our simulator includes a model of the temporal dynamics, observed by Schmidt et al., 1996, accounting for response-attenuation after prolonged or repeated stimulation, as well as the delayed ‘offset’ of phosphene perception.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Figure 4 displays the simulator’s fit on the temporal dynamics found in a previous published study by Schmidt et al., 1996.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Note that the effects found by Fernández et al., 2021 (that were modeled by us) are consistent with findings by other studies, which report brighter phosphenes for higher stimulation strengths (Schmidt et al., 1996), and a lower stimulation efficiency (i.e. higher total charge thresholds) for longer pulse trains or higher pulse widths and frequencies (Niketeghad et al., 2020).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, in contrast to the findings by Schmidt et al., 1996, our simulator predicts a moderate recovery over the next 1000s.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and in cortical prostheses the position of the artificially induced percept will shift along with eye movements (Brindley and Lewin, 1968; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Notably, increasing the stimulation amplitudes can lead the appearance to shift from colored to yellowish or white (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Dynamic optimization of the stimulation may be necessary to counteract unwanted effects such as response fading due to accommodation after repeated or prolonged stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996), or delayed phosphene perception after stimulation on- and offset.”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The appearance of phosphenes in our simulation (white, round, soft dots of light) are largely in line with previous reports on intracortical stimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996; Bak et al., 1990; Fernández et al., 2021).”
From Towards biologically plausible phosphene simulation for the differentiable optimization of visual cortical prostheses (2024) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The work of Schmidt et al. (10) showed that microstimulation via microelectrodes that penetrated the visual cortex could help to mitigate some of these limitations.”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Phosphenes could be evoked with stimulation currents in the tens of microamps range”
From Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex (2021) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“as has been observed in both the retinal70 and cortical literature34”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Previous experimental studies have found it extremely difficult to generate recognizable shapes through stimulation of multiple electrodes34,84.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Third, although our model fits current temporal data reasonably well and includes desensitization due to the refractory period, it is worth noting that various studies have shown longer-scale desensitization with prolonged stimulation in both human34 and macaque89 and this is also observed with retinal prostheses70.”
From A virtual patient simulation modeling the neural and perceptual effects of human visual cortical stimulation, from pulse trains to percepts (2024) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Penetrating electrodes require orders of magnitude less current and produce smaller phosphenes (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
From Writing to the Mind’s Eye of the Blind (2020) · cites this paper as Schmidt et al., 1996
In the citing paper
“This distance reduces the spatial resolution of artificial vision [99], and high currents might be unsafe due to the risk of seizures [88].”
From Advances in visual prostheses: engineering and biological challenges (2022) · cites this paper as [99]
In the citing paper
“Increasing the electrode density increases the risk of having a stimulation cross-talk and current summation when neighbouring electrodes are activated simultaneously.”
From Three-dimensional multilayer concentric bipolar electrodes restrict spatial activation in optic nerve stimulation (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
The sensations produced by electrical stimulation of the visual cortex
Brindley, G. S., & Lewin, W. S. (1968) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1968.sp008519 · Cited by 1,170
Dobelle, W. H., & Mladejovsky, M. G. (1974) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1974.sp010766 · Cited by 468
Dobelle, W. H., Mladejovsky, M. G., & Girvin, J. P. (1974) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.183.4123.440 · Cited by 440
Visual sensations produced by intracortical microstimulation of the human occipital cortex
Bak, M., Girvin, J. P., Hambrecht, F. T., Kufta, C. V., Loeb, G. E., & Schmidt, E. M. (1990) · Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing · doi:10.1007/bf02442682 · Cited by 299
Self-citationParylene as a Chronically Stable, Reproducible Microelectrode Insulator
Loeb, G. E., Bak, M. J., Salcman, M., & Schmidt, E. M. (1977) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.1977.326115 · Cited by 258
Self-citation“Braille” reading by a blind volunteer by visual cortex stimulation
DOBELLE, W. H., MLADEJOVSKY, M. G., EVANS, J. R., ROBERTS, T. S., & GIRVIN, J. P. (1976) · Nature · doi:10.1038/259111a0 · Cited by 253
Activated Ir: An Electrode Suitable for Reversible Charge Injection in Saline Solution
Robblee, L. S., Lefko, J. L., & Brummer, S. B. (1983) · Journal of The Electrochemical Society · doi:10.1149/1.2119793 · Cited by 228
Latency functions in human vision
Mansfield, R. J. W. (1973) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/0042-6989(73)90224-1 · Cited by 150
Geddes, L. A., & Bourland, J. D. (1985) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.1985.325456 · Cited by 128
Simple reaction time as a function of stimulus intensity in decibels of light and sound.
Kohfeld, D. L. (1971) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0030891 · Cited by 119
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- [16]16. Pollen DA. Some perceptual effects of electrical stimulation of the visual cortex in man. In: Tower DB, editor. The nervous system, Vol. 2: the clinical neurosciences. New York: Raven Press, 1975: 519-28.
- [18]18. Rushton DN, Brindley GS. Short-and long-term stability of cortical electrical phosphenes. In: Rose FC, editor. Physiological aspects of clinical neurology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1977: 123-53.
- [20]20. Schmidt EM, Bragg JA. Simple visual reaction time as a means of quantifying brightness of electrically produced phosphenes. Vision Res 1995. In press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 673
Subretinal implantation and testing of polyimide film electrodes in cats
Sachs, H. G., Schanze, T., Wilms, M., Rentzos, A., Brunner, U., Gekeler, F., & Hesse, L. (2004) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-004-1049-x · Cited by 45
Guo, W., Hight, A. E., Chen, J., Klapoetke, N. C., Hancock, K. E., Shinn‐Cunningham, B. G., Boyden, E. S., Lee, D. J., & Polley, D. B. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep10319 · Cited by 44
Intracortical Visual Prosthesis Research - Approach and Progress
Troyk, P. R., Bradley, D., Bak, M., Cogan, S. F., Erickson, R. K., Hu, Z., Kufta, C. V., McCreery, D. B., Schmidt, E. J., Sung, S., et al. (2005) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/iembs.2005.1616216 · Cited by 44
Self-citationFabrication and characterization of the flexible neural microprobes with improved structural design
Fomani, A. A., & Mansour, R. R. (2011) · Sensors and Actuators A Physical · doi:10.1016/j.sna.2011.04.024 · Cited by 45
Improved Poly(3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) for Neural Stimulation
Mandal, H. S., Kastee, J. S., McHail, D. G., Rubinson, J. F., Pancrazio, J. J., & Dumas, T. C. (2015) · Neuromodulation Technology at the Neural Interface · doi:10.1111/ner.12285 · Cited by 43
Implantation of electronic visual prosthesis for blindness restoration
Jang, J., Kim, H., Song, Y. M., & Park, J. (2019) · Optical Materials Express · doi:10.1364/ome.9.003878 · Cited by 43
Asymmetric Versus Symmetric Pulses for Cortical Microstimulation
Koivuniemi, A. S., & Otto, K. J. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2011.2166563 · Cited by 43
“4% when a 100 delay is added to cathode-leading symmetric 200 per phase pulses [36].”
BackgroundSingle electrode micro-stimulation of rat auditory cortex: an evaluation of behavioral performance
Rousche, P. J., Otto, K. J., Reilly, M. P., & Kipke, D. R. (2003) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/s0378-5955(03)00081-9 · Cited by 43
Simulations of Electrode Placement for a Thalamic Visual Prosthesis
Pezaris, J. S., & Reid, R. C. (2009) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2008.2005973 · Cited by 45
Overstreet, C. K., Klein, J., & Tillery, S. I. H. (2013) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/10/6/066016 · Cited by 41
A biomimetic retinal stimulating array
Weiland, J. D., & Humayun, M. S. (2005) · IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine · doi:10.1109/memb.2005.1511496 · Cited by 40
Visual prosthetics 2006: assessment and expectations
Dagnelie, G. (2006) · Expert Review of Medical Devices · doi:10.1586/17434440.3.3.315 · Cited by 41
Fernández, E., Alfaro, A., & González-López, P. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00681 · Cited by 35
“…Mladejovsky, 1974; Dobelle et al., 1976; Dobelle, 2000) showed that simultaneous stimulation of several electrodes placed on the surface of the brain allowed blind volunteers to see some predictable simple patterns, including Braille characters and letters (Bak et al., 1990; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundCortivis approach for an Intracortical visual Prostheses
Fernández, E., & Normann, R. A. (2017) · Artificial Vision · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41876-6_15 · Cited by 40
Wilms, M., Eger, M., Schanze, T., & ECKHORNdagger, R. (2003) · Visual Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/s0952523803205083 · Cited by 40
“Inspired by their work, Schmidt et al. (1996) utilized penetrating electrodes in order to enhance spatial resolution and reduce currents for eliciting phosphenes.”
MethodParaskevoudi, N., & Pezaris, J. S. (2019) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2018.00073 · Cited by 39
Wang, C., Brunton, E., Haghgooie, S., Cassells, K., Lowery, A. J., & Rajan, R. (2013) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/10/4/046010 · Cited by 41
Flexible deep brain neural probe for localized stimulation and detection with metal guide
Kim, J. H., Lee, G. H., Kim, S., Chung, H. W., Lee, J. H., Lee, S. M., Kang, C. Y., & Lee, S. (2018) · Biosensors and Bioelectronics · doi:10.1016/j.bios.2018.06.035 · Cited by 39
Two-photon imaging and the activation of cortical neurons
Tehovnik, E. J., & Slocum, W. M. (2013) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.04.022 · Cited by 39
Image and Video Processing for Visually Handicapped People
Pun, T., Roth, P., Bologna, G., Μουστάκας, Κ., & Tzovaras, D. K. (2007) · EURASIP Journal on Image and Video Processing · doi:10.1155/2007/25214 · Cited by 43
Neural Prosthetics: A Review of Empirical vs. Systems Engineering Strategies
Loeb, G. E. (2018) · Applied Bionics and Biomechanics · doi:10.1155/2018/1435030 · Cited by 38
“A few experiments with acute and subacute microstimulation of visual cortex in awake humans confirmed that stable and combinable phosphenes could be obtained [44, 45], but extending the technology and surgical techniques to provide sufficient numbers of channels for useful vision remains daunting.”
BackgroundElectrical induction of vision
Tehovnik, E. J., & Slocum, W. M. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.012 · Cited by 33
van der Grinten, M., de Ruyter van Steveninck, J., Lozano, A., Pijnacker, L., Rueckauer, B., Roelfsema, P., van Gerven, M., van Wezel, R., Güçlü, U., & Güçlütürk, Y. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.85812 · Cited by 39
“The parameter τ act is set equal to 0.111 s to reflect qualitative descriptions found in Schmidt et al., 1996 .”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMicro-Coil Design Influences the Spatial Extent of Responses to Intracortical Magnetic Stimulation
Lee, S. W., Thyagarajan, K., & Fried, S. I. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2018.2877713 · Cited by 37
“variety of cortical prostheses currently under development that strive aim to restore vision [2], [3], [5], hearing [71], [72], and tactile sensations [1], [9].”
Srivastava, N., Troyk, P. R., Towle, V. L., Curry, D. J., Schmidt, E. M., Kufta, C. V., & Dagnelie, G. (2007) · International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering · doi:10.1109/cne.2007.369629 · Cited by 35
Self-citationEles, J. R., Stieger, K. C., & Kozai, T. D. Y. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/abc29c · Cited by 36
Effects of stimulus pulse rate on somatosensory adaptation in the human cortex
Hughes, C. L., Flesher, S. N., & Gaunt, R. A. (2022) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2022.05.021 · Cited by 34
Cicmil, N., & Krug, K. (2015) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0206 · Cited by 41
Image Processing Strategies Dedicated to Visual Cortical Stimulators: A Survey
Buffoni, L., Coulombe, J., & Sawan, M. (2005) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1111/j.1525-1594.2005.29104.x · Cited by 36
Sachs, H. G., Schanze, T., Brunner, U., Sailer, H., & Wiesenack, C. (2005) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/2/1/008 · Cited by 36
Rosenfeld, J. V., Wong, Y. T., Yan, E., Szlawski, J., Mohan, A., Clark, J. C., Rosa, M., & Lowery, A. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab9e1c · Cited by 35
Suppression of Subthalamic Nucleus Activity by Micromagnetic Stimulation
Lee, S. W., & Fried, S. I. (2014) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2014.2348415 · Cited by 35
“cluding visual prosthetics [6]–[10] (retinal and cortical), several types of limb prosthetics [11], [12] as well as many new”
Restoration of vision using wireless cortical implants: The Monash Vision Group project
Lowery, A. J., Rosenfeld, J. V., Lewis, P., Browne, D. C., Mohan, A., Brunton, E., Yan, E. B., Maller, J. J., Mann, C., Rajan, R., et al. (2015) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2015.7318543 · Cited by 35
Chronic stability of a neuroprosthesis comprising multiple adjacent Utah arrays in monkeys
Chen, X., Wang, F., Kooijmans, R. N., Klink, P. C., Boehler, C., Asplund, M., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ace07e · Cited by 45
Neural electrodes for brain‐computer interface system: From rigid to soft
Yang, D., Tian, G., Chen, J., Liu, Y., Fatima, E., Qiu, J., Malek, N. A. N. N., & Qi, D. (2025) · BMEMat · doi:10.1002/bmm2.12130 · Cited by 37
Sensitivity to microstimulation of somatosensory cortex distributed over multiple electrodes
Kim, S., Callier, T., Tabot, G. A., Tenore, F. V., & Bensmaı̈a, S. J. (2015) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2015.00047 · Cited by 33
Microfabricated intracortical extracellular matrix-microelectrodes for improving neural interfaces
Shen, W., Das, S., Vitale, F., Richardson, A. G., Ananthakrishnan, A., Struzyna, L. A., Brown, D. P., Song, N., Ramkumar, M., Lucas, T. H., et al. (2018) · Microsystems & Nanoengineering · doi:10.1038/s41378-018-0030-5 · Cited by 37
“sensory and motor abilities such as robotic arm movement [5]–[7], visual function [8], speech”
Deliano, M., Scheich, H., & Ohl, F. W. (2009) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1949-09.2009 · Cited by 34
Advances in Retinal Neuroprosthetics
Lovell, N. H., Hallum, L. E., Chen, S. C., Dokos, S., Byrnes‐Preston, P., Green, R. A., Poole-Warren, L. A., Lehmann, T., & Suaning, G. J. (2006) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470068298.ch20 · Cited by 34
“Several groups are in pursuit of intracortical approaches in answer to the shortcomings of surface stimulation [29-31].”
BackgroundPhosphene perceptions and safety of chronic visual cortex stimulation in a blind subject
Niketeghad, S., Muralidharan, A., Patel, U., Dorn, J. D., Bonelli, L., Greenberg, R. J., & Pouratian, N. (2020) · Journal of Neurosurgery · doi:10.3171/2019.3.jns182774 · Cited by 33
A continuum model of retinal electrical stimulation
Joarder, S. A., Abramian, M., Suaning, G. J., Lovell, N. H., & Dokos, S. (2011) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/8/6/066006 · Cited by 33
Caspi, A., Barry, M. P., Patel, U. K., Salas, M. A., Dorn, J. D., Roy, A., Niketeghad, S., Greenberg, R. J., & Pouratian, N. (2021) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2021.04.019 · Cited by 32
Lu, Y., Yan, Y., Chai, X., Ren, Q., Chen, Y., & Li, L. (2013) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/10/3/036022 · Cited by 32
Sun, J., Lu, Y., Cao, P., Li, X., Cai, C., Chai, X., Ren, Q., & Li, L. (2010) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.09-4024 · Cited by 32
Plasticity in the Human Nervous System
(2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511544903 · Cited by 32
Biodegradable batteries with immobilized electrolyte for transient MEMS
She, D., Tsang, M., & Allen, M. G. (2019) · Biomedical Microdevices · doi:10.1007/s10544-019-0377-x · Cited by 31
Brown, D. J., & Proulx, M. J. (2016) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/jstsp.2016.2543678 · Cited by 33
Microelectronic Visual Prostheses
Zhou, D. D., & Greenberg, R. J. (2009) · Biological and medical physics series · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77261-5_1 · Cited by 31
“Electrochemically activated IrOx has been used as the electrode material on the ‘‘hat-pin’’ microelectrodes for intracortical stimulation of the visual cortex [64], on the needle electrode made by McCreery’s group [93], and on the microphotodiode chips made by Optobionics [47].”
BackgroundMethodFu, L., Cai, S., Zhang, H., Hu, G., & Zhang, X. (2005) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2005.11.011 · Cited by 32
“It was reported that phosphene brightness could be modulated by intensity of electric stimulation (Dobelle & Mladejovsky, 1974; Humayun et al., 1999; Humayun et al., 2003; Rizzo et al., 2003; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
Recognition of Pixelized Chinese Characters Using Simulated Prosthetic Vision
Chai, X., Yu, W., Wang, J., Zhao, Y., Cai, C., & Ren, Q. (2007) · Artificial Organs · doi:10.1111/j.1525-1594.2007.00362.x · Cited by 31
Hughes, C. L., & Kozai, T. D. Y. (2023) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2023.05.013 · Cited by 30
“Adaptation of perceived intensity has been observed in peripheral nerve stimulation [98,99], visual cortex ICMS [15], and somatosensory cortex ICMS [20].”
BackgroundPercepts evoked by multi-electrode stimulation of human visual cortex
Bosking, W. H., Oswalt, D. N., Foster, B. L., Sun, P., Beauchamp, M. S., & Yoshor, D. (2022) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2022.08.007 · Cited by 33
“Experiments utilizing penetrating micro-electrodes in humans [9,33] and non-human primates [25,34e37] have typically found lower thresholds for generation of phosphenes (single to tens of microamps), a smaller radius of cortical activation, and a smaller cortical two-point discrimination distance (hundreds of microns).”
Implantation and testing of subretinal film electrodes in domestic pigs
Schanze, T., Sachs, H. G., Wiesenack, C., Brunner, U., & Sailer, H. (2005) · Experimental Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.exer.2005.07.007 · Cited by 30
Stieger, K. C., Eles, J. R., Ludwig, K. A., & Kozai, T. D. Y. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac5bf5 · Cited by 28
“The magnitude of perceived artificial percept has been shown to decrease during continuous electrical stimulation of the somatosensory cortex(77), visual cortex(78), and peripheral nerves(76).”
Voigt, B. C., Brecht, M., & Houweling, A. R. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3046-08.2008 · Cited by 29
“These values are comparable with the lowest cortical microstimulation detection thresholds found in humans (Schmidt et al., 1996), monkeys (Bartlett and Doty, 1980; de Lafuente and Romo, 2005; Murphey and Maunsell, 2007), and rats (Butovas and Schwarz, 2007; Houweling and Brecht, 2008).”
ResultNguyen, H. T., Tangutooru, S. M., Rountree, C. M., Kantzos, A., Tarlochan, F., Yoon, W. J., & Troy, J. B. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2016.2567300 · Cited by 30
“, small polychromatic pinwheels) [29], [30].”
Averna, A., Pasquale, V., Murphy, M. D., Rogantin, M. P., Acker, G. M. V., Nudo, R. J., Chiappalone, M., & Guggenmos, D. J. (2019) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhz281 · Cited by 29
Neural mechanisms of the temporal response of cortical neurons to intracortical microstimulation
Kumaravelu, K., & Grill, W. M. (2024) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2024.03.012 · Cited by 27
“Similarly, high frequency ICMS delivered at 100 – 200 Hz led the induced phosphenes to disappear within several hundred millisec-onds [51].”
BackgroundLiu, X., Chen, P., Ding, X., Liu, A., Li, P., Sun, C., & Guan, H. (2022) · Annals of Translational Medicine · doi:10.21037/atm-22-2858 · Cited by 33
Lane, F. J., HUYCK, M. H., & Troyk, P. R. (2010) · Disability and Rehabilitation Assistive Technology · doi:10.3109/17483107.2010.514381 · Cited by 28
Electrical Stimulation with a Needle-type Electrode Inserted into the Optic Nerve in Rabbit Eyes
Sakaguchi, H., Fujikado, T., Kanda, H., Osanai, M., Fang, X., Nakauchi, K., Ikuno, Y., Kamei, M., Ohji, M., Yagi, T., et al. (2004) · Japanese Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s10384-004-0114-7 · Cited by 28
CMOS stimulating chips capable of wirelessly driving 473 electrodes for a cortical vision prosthesis
Wong, Y. T., Feleppa, T., Mohan, A., Browne, D., Szlawski, J., Rosenfeld, J. V., & Lowery, A. (2019) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab021b · Cited by 27
Flexible Polymer Electrodes for Stable Prosthetic Visual Perception in Mice
Orlemann, C., Boehler, C., Kooijmans, R. N., Li, B., Asplund, M., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2024) · Advanced Healthcare Materials · doi:10.1002/adhm.202304169 · Cited by 26
REVIEW ARTICLE: Cortical control of eye and head movements: integration of movements and percepts
Chen, L. L., & Tehovnik, E. J. (2007) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05392.x · Cited by 28
“The above findings agree with the stimulation studies on human visual cortex (Brindley & Lewin, 1968; Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundResultMicrosensors and microbiosensors for retinal implants
David, D. (2005) · Frontiers in bioscience · doi:10.2741/1518 · Cited by 28
Approaches to a cortical vision prosthesis: implications of electrode size and placement
Christie, B. P., Ashmont, K. R., House, P. A., & Greger, B. (2016) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/13/2/025003 · Cited by 26
A simulation of current focusing and steering with penetrating optic nerve electrodes
Li, M., Yan, Y., Wang, Q., Zhao, H., Chai, X., Sui, X., Ren, Q., & Li, L. (2013) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/10/6/066007 · Cited by 25
Artificial means for restoring vision
Hossain, P. N., Seetho, I. W., Browning, A. C., & Amoaku, W. M. K. (2004) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7481.30 · Cited by 26
An active microphotodiode array of oscillating pixels for retinal stimulation
Ziegler, D., Linderholm, P., Mazza, M., Ferazzutti, S., Bertrand, D., Ionescu, A. M., & Renaud, P. (2003) · Sensors and Actuators A Physical · doi:10.1016/j.sna.2003.09.040 · Cited by 26
Cortical magnification plus cortical plasticity equals vision?
Born, R. T., Trott, A., & Hartmann, T. S. (2014) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2014.10.002 · Cited by 26
Monash Vision Group’s Gennaris Cortical Implant for Vision Restoration
Lowery, A. J., Rosenfeld, J. V., Rosa, M. G. P., Brunton, E., Rajan, R., Mann, C., Armstrong, M., Mohan, A., Josh, H., Kleeman, L., et al. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41876-6_17 · Cited by 25
Sensors for brain temperature measurement and monitoring – a review
Izhar, U., Piyathilaka, L., & Preethichandra, D. M. G. (2022) · Neuroscience Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.neuri.2022.100106 · Cited by 26
Focal activation of neuronal circuits induced by microstimulation in the visual cortex
Tanaka, Y., Nomoto, T., Shiki, T., Sakata, Y., Shimada, Y., Hayashida, Y., & Yagi, T. (2019) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab0b80 · Cited by 26
Advances in neuroscience, not devices, will determine the effectiveness of visual prostheses
Abbasi, B., & Rizzo, J. F. (2021) · Seminars in Ophthalmology · doi:10.1080/08820538.2021.1887902 · Cited by 19
Microstimulation-evoked neural responses in visual cortex are depth dependent
Allison-Walker, T., Hagan, M. A., Price, N. S. C., & Wong, Y. T. (2021) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2021.04.020 · Cited by 22
Visual objects in the auditory system in sensory substitution: How much information do we need?
Brown, D. J., Simpson, A. J. R., & Proulx, M. J. (2014) · Multisensory Research · doi:10.1163/22134808-00002462 · Cited by 23
Visual Acuity of Simulated Thalamic Visual Prostheses in Normally Sighted Humans
Bourkiza, B., Vurro, M., Jeffries, A. M., & Pezaris, J. S. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073592 · Cited by 23
“The size of each displayed phosphene was determined by apparatus geometry, retinotopic eccentricity [24], and reports from the literature [25,26,27,28]; phosphenes were never smaller than one pixel, and became larger with increasing eccentricity, being about 0.”
Feasibility of Neural Stimulation With Floating-Light-Activated Microelectrical Stimulators
Abdo, A., & Şahin, M. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2011.2114882 · Cited by 22
“Seeing” through the tongue: cross-modal plasticity in the congenitally blind
Kupers, R. C., & Ptito, M. (2004) · International Congress Series · doi:10.1016/j.ics.2004.04.053 · Cited by 22
Electrodeposited Platinum Iridium Enables Microstimulation With Carbon Fiber Electrodes
della Valle, E., Koo, B., Patel, P. R., Whitsitt, Q. A., Purcell, E. K., Chestek, C. A., & Weiland, J. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Nanotechnology · doi:10.3389/fnano.2021.782883 · Cited by 21
“The corresponding current amplitude of 40 μA was well above published activation thresholds for cortical microstimulation (Schmidt et al., 1996).”
BackgroundTreatment of age-related macular degeneration
Stokkermans, T. J. (2000) · Clinical Eye and Vision Care · doi:10.1016/s0953-4431(99)00043-0 · Cited by 22
Wu, G. K., Ardeshirpour, Y., Mastracchio, C., Kent, J., Caiola, M. J., & Ye, M. (2023) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2023.108140 · Cited by 22
A neuroengineering suite of computational tools for visual prostheses
Morillas, C. A., Romero, S. F., Martínez-Álvarez, A., Pelayo, F. J., Reyneri, L. M., Bongard, M., & Fernández, E. (2007) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2006.04.017 · Cited by 21
A computational model that predicts behavioral sensitivity to intracortical microstimulation
Kim, S., Callier, T., & Bensmaia, S. J. (2017) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/14/1/016012 · Cited by 21
Lu, Y., Cao, P., Sun, J., Wang, J., Li, L., Ren, Q., Chen, Y., & Chai, X. (2012) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/9/2/026002 · Cited by 21
Behavioural state affects saccadic eye movements evoked by microstimulation of striate cortex
Tehovnik, E. J., Slocum, W. M., & Carvey, C. E. (2003) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02798.x · Cited by 23
Greenberg, R. J. (2000) · Neuromodulation Technology at the Neural Interface · doi:10.1046/j.1525-1403.2000.00161.x · Cited by 21
Striem-Amit, E., Bubic, R., & Amedi, A. (2011) · Frontiers in neuroscience · doi:10.1201/b11092-27 · Cited by 22
Fine, I., & Boynton, G. M. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-65337-1 · Cited by 19
“Overall, our simulations suggest that neurophysiological rather than engineering constraints are likely to limit the spatial resolution of cortical prostheses for the foreseeable future.”
BackgroundPatterned electrical brain stimulation by a wireless network of implantable microdevices
Lee, A., Lee, J.-H., Leung, V., Larson, L. E., & Nurmikko, A. V. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-54542-1 · Cited by 29
“In twoprevious studies innon-humanprimate and human subjects 47,48 , applied stimulation duty cycles were approximately 9.3%, resulting in an expected average SAR of 0.93 W/kg.”
InfluentialA Robust Encoding Scheme for Delivering Artificial Sensory Information via Direct Brain Stimulation
Bjånes, D. A., & Moritz, C. T. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2019.2936739 · Cited by 20
Levy, L., Ebadi, H., Smith, A. P., Taiclet, L., Pouratian, N., & Feinsinger, A. (2023) · AJOB Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/21507740.2023.2257152 · Cited by 23
“Early testing with several VCPs indicates that static stimulation of multiple electrodes produces several isolated phosphenes that do not come together as coherent images for users (Dobelle et al. 1976; Schmidt et al. 1996; Beauchamp et al. 2020).”
Semprini, M., Bennicelli, L., & Vato, A. (2012) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2012.6346052 · Cited by 23
Perspectives on: Materials Aspects for Retinal Prostheses
Scholz, C. (2007) · Journal of Bioactive and Compatible Polymers · doi:10.1177/0883911507082160 · Cited by 20
Chinese Character Recognition Using Simulated Phosphene Maps
Zhao, Y., Lü, Y., Zhou, C., Yao, C., Ren, Q., & Chai, X. (2011) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.09-4234 · Cited by 20
“IOVS 2006;47:ARVO E-Abstract 3202).(14,15) All clinical trials show that the size, brightness, dropout, and arrangement of the phosphenes change under different implant and stimulation conditions.”
BackgroundVision rehabilitation with the optic nerve visual prosthesis
Veraart, C., Duret, F., Brelen, M. E., & Delbeke, J. (2005) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/iembs.2004.1404161 · Cited by 20
“After Brindley’s first investigation on occipital cortex stimulation [1] several attempts to electrically evoke a visual sensation when stimulating the occipital cortex of blind individuals have been undertaken [ 6 ].”
MethodAlteheld, N., Roessler, G. F., Vobig, M. A., & Walter, P. (2004) · Biomedizinische Technik/Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1515/bmt.2004.020 · Cited by 19
Towards the cortical representation of form and motion stimuli generated by a retina implant
Schanze, T., Greve, N., & Hesse, L. (2003) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-003-0746-1 · Cited by 20
Zheng, X. S., Yang, Q., Vazquez, A. L., & Cui, X. T. (2022) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.104539 · Cited by 18
Intracortical current steering shifts the location of evoked neural activity
Meikle, S. J., Hagan, M. A., Price, N. S. C., & Wong, Y. T. (2022) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac77bf · Cited by 19
Metadata
- Authors
- Schmidt, E. M., Bak, M. J., Hambrecht, F. T., Kufta, C. V., O'Rourke, D. K., & Vallabhanath, P.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schmidt, E. M.
- Venue
- Brain
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 507-522
- ISSN
- 0006-8950 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-2156
- OpenAlex
- W2090285495
- Cited by
- 672
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 3.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine › Pain Management and Treatment
- Keywords
- visual prosthesis, intracortical microstimulation, visual cortex, phosphenes, blindness, glaucoma, two-point resolution, color perception, eye movements, threshold current, feasibility study, neuroprosthetics
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Blindness, Electric Stimulation, Female, Humans, Microelectrodes, Time Factors, Visual Cortex, Visual Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
