Cited by 1,173Sodium Intake and HealthBlood Pressure and Hypertension StudiesNutritional Studies and Diet

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 157 of the 157 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Salt intakes around the world: implications for public health

Brown, I. J, Tzoulaki, I., Candeias, V., Elliott, P.·2009·International Journal of Epidemiology

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

BACKGROUND: High levels of dietary sodium (consumed as common salt, sodium chloride) are associated with raised blood pressure and adverse cardiovascular health. Despite this, public health efforts to reduce sodium consumption remain limited to a few countries. Comprehensive, contemporaneous sodium intake data from around the world are needed to inform national/international public health initiatives to reduce sodium consumption. METHODS: Use of standardized 24-h sodium excretion estimates for adults from the international INTERSALT (1985-87) and INTERMAP (1996-99) studies, and recent dietary and urinary sodium data from observational or interventional studies--identified by a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed and 'grey' literature--presented separately for adults and children. Review of methods for the estimation of sodium intake/excretion. Main food sources of sodium are presented for several Asian, European and Northern American countries, including previously unpublished INTERMAP data. RESULTS: Sodium intakes around the world are well in excess of physiological need (i.e. 10-20 mmol/day). Most adult populations have mean sodium intakes >100 mmol/day, and for many (particularly the Asian countries) mean intakes are >200 mmol/day. Possible exceptions include estimates from Cameroon, Ghana, Samoa, Spain, Taiwan, Tanzania, Uganda and Venezuela, though methodologies were sub-optimal and samples were not nationally representative. Sodium intakes were commonly >100 mmol/day in children over 5 years old, and increased with age. In European and Northern American countries, sodium intake is dominated by sodium added in manufactured foods ( approximately 75% of intake). Cereals and baked goods were the single largest contributor to dietary sodium intake in UK and US adults. In Japan and China, salt added at home (in cooking and at the table) and soy sauce were the largest sources. CONCLUSIONS: Unfavourably high sodium intakes remain prevalent around the world. Sources of dietary sodium vary largely worldwide. If policies for salt reduction at the population level are to be effective, policy development and implementation needs to target the main source of dietary sodium in the various populations.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1093/ije/dyp139

Cites

157 of 157 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Effects on Blood Pressure of Reduced Dietary Sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Diet
Sacks, F. M., Svetkey, L. P., Vollmer, W. M., Appel, L. J., Bray, G. A., Harsha, D., Obarzanek, E., Conlin, P. R., Miller, E. R., Simons-Morton, D. G., et al. (2001) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm200101043440101 · Cited by 5,638
Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases
Joint, W. (2002) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 4,890
Bulletin of the World Health Organization
C., N. H. (1955) · British Journal of Sociology · doi:10.2307/587237 · Cited by 3,663
Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases
Yusuf, S., Reddy, S., Ôunpuu, S., & Anand, S. S. (2001) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/hc4601.099487 · Cited by 3,014
Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis
Ludwig, D. S., Peterson, K. E., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2001) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(00)04041-1 · Cited by 2,414
Intersalt: an international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure. Results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group.
(1988) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.297.6644.319 · Cited by 2,213
McCance and Widdowson's The Composition of Foods
England, P. H. (2002) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781849735551 · Cited by 2,209
The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine
(2003) · Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0022-2143(03)00127-6 · Cited by 1,803
Intersalt: An international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure. Results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion
Rose, G. A., Stamler, J., Stamler, R., Elliott, P., Marmot, M. G., Pyörälä, K., Kesteloot, H., Joossens, J. V., Hansson, L. ‐., Mancia, G., et al. (1988) · Cited by 1,281
Self-citation
Sodium Reduction and Weight Loss in the Treatment of Hypertension in Older Persons: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Nonpharmacologic Interventions in the Elderly (TONE)
Whelton, P. K., Appel, L. J., Espeland, M. A., Applegate, W. B., Ettinger, Jr., Kostis, J. B., Kumanyika, S., Lacy, C. R., Johnson, K. C., Folmar, S., et al. (1998) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.279.11.839 · Cited by 1,200

Show all 157 references

Research works printed but not linked: 14

1962, 3, 313
Froment, 1979, Revue d' pid miologie et de sant publique, 27, 437
Rose, 1989, Journal of human hypertension, 3, 283
1964, 19, 735
1987, NUTR ABSTR REV A HUM EXP, 57, 705
Baldwin, 1960, The Journal of laboratory and clinical medicine, 55, 362
1998, SCAND J NUTR, 42, 13
Wu, 1991, Chinese medical sciences journal = Chung-kuo i hs eh k'o hs eh tsa chih / Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, 6, 148
1980, Hypertension, 2, 78, 10.1161/01.HYP.2.4.78 · DOI
1998, RIV PEDIATR PREV SOC, 38, 59
1980, Hypertension, 2, 93, 10.1161/01.HYP.2.4.93 · DOI
2003, ADV DATA VITAL HEALTH STAT, 334, 1
Heino, 2000, Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992), 89, 406, 10.1080/080352500750028096 · DOI
Joshi, 2003, Indian pediatrics, 40, 24

Sorted by citations

Items 501–600 of 1,000

Nutrition and quality of life in chronic kidney disease patients: a practical approach for salt restriction
Iseki, K. (2022) · Kidney Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.23876/j.krcp.21.203 · Cited by 19
“Japan and China were known to be high salt intake countries, mainly due to the use of soy sauce and table salt [79].”
Background
Preliminary nutritional assessment of the Ecuadorian diet based on a 24-h food recall survey in Ecuador.
Llaguno, S. N. S., Neira-Mosquera, J. A., Pérez‐Rodríguez, F., & Rojas, R. M. (2013) · PubMed · doi:10.3305/nh.2013.28.5.6766 · Cited by 18
“Although data on Na intake is still scant in Latin-American countries, it is well-known that saltintake levels are in excess of recommendations in Latin-American countries.(29) Accordingly International guidelines and program recommend that salt intake should be reduced to minimize the risk of heart disease and stroke…”
Background
Promoting Healthy Living in Latin America and the Caribbean: Governance of Multisectoral Activities to Prevent Risk Factors for Noncommunicable Diseases
Bonilla-Chacín, M. E. (2013) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0016-0 · Cited by 18
Sodium Chloride Suppresses Vegetable Bitterness Only When Plain Vegetables Are Perceived as Highly Bitter
Wilkie, L. M., Phillips, E. D. C., & Wadhera, D. (2013) · Chemosensory Perception · doi:10.1007/s12078-013-9159-7 · Cited by 18
“Although the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of sodium is 2,400 mg, which is equal to 6 g of sodium chloride, the average intake is 9 g in the United States (Karppanen and Mervaala 2006) and 9–12 g worldwide (Brown et al. 2009).”
Background
Normative data on regional sweat-sodium concentrations of professional male team-sport athletes
Ranchordas, M. K., Tiller, N. B., Ramchandani, G., Jutley, R., Blow, A., Tye, J., & Drury, B. (2017) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s12970-017-0197-4 · Cited by 20
“Data from 696 professional male team-sport athletes (soccer, n = 270; rugby, n = 181; baseball, n = 133; American football, n = 60; basketball, n = 52) were compiled after consultancy services were provided to clubs from North America (American football, basketball and baseball), and the United Kingdom (soccer and rug…”
Influential
Nutrition and Cardiovascular Disease.
(1977) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-86-6-836_3 · Cited by 18
The presence of sodium content and sodium-containing food additives in packaged foods and beverages sold in Turkey
Bayram, H. M., & Öztürkcan, A. (2021) · Journal of Food Composition and Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2021.104078 · Cited by 18
Health Taxes
Lauer, J. A., Sassi, F., Soucat, A. L. B., & Vigo, A. (2021) · WORLD SCIENTIFIC (EUROPE) eBooks · doi:10.1142/q0365 · Cited by 21
Sodium and Human Health: What Can Be Done to Improve Sodium Balance beyond Food Processing?
Tremblay, A., Gagné, M.-P., Përusse, L., Fortier, C., Provencher, V., Corcuff, R., Pomerleau, S., Foti, N., & Drapeau, V. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16081199 · Cited by 17
“Specifically, prepared and prepackaged foods provide about 75% of dietary sodium intake [12,60].”
Background
Adaptation, Update and Validation of the General Nutrition Questionnaire in a Portuguese Adolescent Sample
Lebres, V. A. F., Moreira, P. A. M., & Ribeiro, J. C. (2014) · Ecology of Food and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/03670244.2013.873424 · Cited by 17
“In Phase 2, some food items were included and the score of each item was revised according to the latest scientific evidence (Anderson et al. 2009; Brown et al. 2009; de Sa and Lock 2008; He and MacGregor 2009; Hoffmann et al. 2003; Kipping, Jago, and Lawlor 2008; Kushi et al. 2006; Mirmiran et al. 2009; Ruxton, Gardn…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Association Between Estimated 24-h Urinary Sodium Excretion and Metabolic Syndrome in Korean Adults
Won, J. C., Hong, J. W., Noh, J. H., & Kim, D. (2016) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000003153 · Cited by 17
Current policies in Brazil for ensuring nutritional quality
Block, J. M., Bragotto, A. P. A., & Feltes, M. M. C. (2017) · Food Quality and Safety · doi:10.1093/fqsafe/fyx026 · Cited by 19
“On the other hand, it is well established that high amounts of sodium in the diet can lead to increased blood pressure, a common risk factor for circulatory diseases such as heart disease and stroke (Cappuccio, 2013, He et al., 2013; Brown et al., 2009).”
Background
Dietary Sodium and Other Nutrient Intakes among Patients Undergoing Hemodialysis in New Zealand
Xie, Z., McLean, R. M., & Marshall, M. R. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10040502 · Cited by 17
Knowledge, attitudes and practices related to dietary salt intake among adults in North India
Garg, V., Shivashankar, R., Kondal, D., Ghosh, S., Khandelwal, S., Gupta, R., Krishnan, A., Amarchand, R., Prabhakaran, D., & Mohan, S. (2018) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980018003518 · Cited by 17
“However, salt intake around the world ranges from 6·0 to 11·8 g/d, which is far in excess of the recommended levels((1,6)).”
BackgroundInfluential
Relationship of household salt intake level with long-term all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in Japan: NIPPON DATA80
Shima, A., Miyamatsu, N., Miura, K., Miyagawa, N., Okuda, N., Yoshita, K., Kadota, A., Suzuki, H., Kondo, K., Okamura, T., et al. (2019) · Hypertension Research · doi:10.1038/s41440-019-0349-9 · Cited by 17
Cube natural sea salt ameliorates obesity in high fat diet-induced obese mice and 3T3-L1 adipocytes
Park, E., Yu, T., Yang, K., Choi, S., Lee, S.-M., & Park, K. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-60462-z · Cited by 17
The Use of Added Salt and Sugar in the Diet of Polish and Austrian Toddlers. Associated Factors and Dietary Patterns, Feeding and Maternal Practices
Masztalerz-Kozubek, D., Zielinska-Pukos, M. A., Rust, P., Majchrzak, D., & Hamułka, J. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17145025 · Cited by 18
Health promotion behaviors of residents with hypertension in Iwate, Japan and North Carolina, USA
Kemppainen, J. K., BOMAR, P. J., Kikuchi, K., Kanematsu, Y., Ambo, H., & Noguchi, K. (2010) · Japan Journal of Nursing Science · doi:10.1111/j.1742-7924.2010.00156.x · Cited by 17
Efforts to Reduce Sodium Intake in Canada: Why, What, and When?
Vliet, B. N. V., & Campbell, N. R. C. (2011) · Canadian Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2011.04.012 · Cited by 17
Unnecessary Controversy Regarding Dietary Sodium: A Lot About a Little
Campbell, N. R. C., Cappuccio, F. P., & Tobe, S. W. (2011) · Canadian Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2011.05.003 · Cited by 18
Consumption of high sucrose and/or high salt diet alters sperm function in male Sprague–Dawley rats
Adekunbi, D. A., Ogunsola, O. A., Oyelowo, O., Aluko, E. O., Popoola, A. A., & Akinboboye, O. O. (2016) · Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.ejbas.2016.03.003 · Cited by 17
Urine 24-Hour Sodium Excretion Decreased between 1953 and 2014 in Japan,but Estimated Intake Still Exceeds the WHO Recommendation
Uechi, K., Sugimoto, M., Kobayashi, S., & Sasaki, S. (2017) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.116.240960 · Cited by 17
“, development of the food industry and the distribution system for processed foods), the westernization of the Japanese diet, and behavioral change, such as making use of refrigeration instead of salt to preserve foods, may also have contributed to the decrease in sodium intake after the 1950s (4, 5).”
Background
Fasting but not casual blood glucose is associated with pancreatic cancer mortality in Japanese: EPOCH-JAPAN
Nagai, M., Murakami, Y., Tamakoshi, A., Kiyohara, Y., Yamada, M., Ukawa, S., Hirata, T., Tanaka, S., Miura, K., Ueshima, H., et al. (2017) · Cancer Causes & Control · doi:10.1007/s10552-017-0884-0 · Cited by 17
Daily salt intake estimated by overnight urine collections indicates a high cardiovascular disease risk in Thailand.
Yokokawa, H., Yuasa, M., Nedsuwan, S., Moolphate, S., Fukuda, H., Kitajima, T., Minematsu, K., Tanimura, S., & Marui, E. (2016) · PubMed · doi:10.6133/apjcn.2016.25.1.22 · Cited by 16
A High‐Salt Diet Disturbs the Development and Function of Natural Killer Cells in Mice
Zeng, X., Li, Y., Lv, W., Dong, X., Zeng, C., Zeng, L., Wei, Z., Xu, L., Ma, Y., & Xiao, Q. (2020) · Journal of Immunology Research · doi:10.1155/2020/6687143 · Cited by 18
“A high-salt diet (HSD) refers to a daily salt intake greater than 5 g per person, and both public health agencies and guidelines recommend reducing salt intake [7].”
Relationship between Helicobacter pylori and Incident Hypertension as well as Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Yue, L., Zhang, R., Chen, S., & Duan, G. (2022) · Digestive Diseases · doi:10.1159/000524078 · Cited by 16
An mHealth-based school health education system designed to scale up salt reduction in China (EduSaltS): A development and preliminary implementation study
Zhang, P., Sun, J., Li, Y., Li, Y., Sun, Y., Luo, R., Nie, X., Li, L., Liu, Y., & He, F. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1161282 · Cited by 16
Technology-supported behavior change interventions for reducing sodium intake in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Yan, Y., Chan, L. M. L., Wang, M. P., Kwok, J. Y. Y., Anderson, C. S., & Lee, J. J. (2024) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-024-01067-y · Cited by 20
“As sodium intakeishighlyassociatedwithdailydietconsumption 1,40 ,interventionsthat are delivered more frequently may serve as a constant reminder for individuals to adopt healthier sodium intake behaviors in their daily lives, potentially leading to better sodium reduction outcomes.”
Background
Construction and application of a synthetic microbial community in reduced salinity fermentation of raw-materials based broad bean paste
Niu, C., Xing, X., Zuo, W., Zuo, Z., Liu, F., Liu, C., & Li, Q. (2024) · Food Bioscience · doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2024.104851 · Cited by 16
Evaluation of a nutrient-based diet quality index in UK young children and investigation into the diet quality of consumers of formula and infant foods
Verger, E. O., Eussen, S. R. B. M., & Holmes, B. (2015) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980015003134 · Cited by 16
“For example, food diaries are known to underestimate Na intake((34)).”
Background
Characterization of salt consumption among hypertensives according to socio-demographic and clinical factors
Perin, M. S., Cornélio, M. E., Rodrigues, R. C. M., & Gallani, M. C. B. J. (2013) · Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem · doi:10.1590/s0104-11692013000500002 · Cited by 16
Molecular Mechanisms of Experimental Salt‐Sensitive Hypertension
Joe, B., & Shapiro, J. I. (2012) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.112.002121 · Cited by 16
The mediating effect of the Mediterranean diet on the role of discretionary and hidden salt intake regarding non-fatal acute coronary syndrome or stroke events: A case/case-control study
Kastorini, C.-M., Milionis, H. J., Kalantzi, K. J., Trichia, E., Nikolaou, V., Vemmos, K. N., Goudevenos, J. A., & Panagiotakos, D. B. (2012) · Atherosclerosis · doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.08.004 · Cited by 16
“Indeed, hidden salt represents the majority of total salt intake, as salt intake from unprocessed foods contributes approximately 12% of total salt intake, while salt from processed foods over 75% [2e4], especially in western countries [3,4].”
Background
Using Fish Sauce as a Substitute for Sodium Chloride in Culinary Sauces and Effects on Sensory Properties
Huynh, H. L., Danhi, R., & Yan, S. W. (2015) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/1750-3841.13171 · Cited by 16
Sodium intake and dietary sources of sodium in undergraduate students from Novi Sad, Serbia
Jovičić-Bata, J., Grujičić, M., Radjen, S., & Novaković, B. (2016) · Vojnosanitetski pregled · doi:10.2298/vsp141010063j · Cited by 16
Dietary Behavior Related to Salty Food Intake of Adults Living in a Rural Area according to Saline Sensitivity
Kim, M.-K., Han, J.-I., & Chung, Y. (2011) · Journal of Nutrition and Health · doi:10.4163/kjn.2011.44.6.537 · Cited by 15
The association of urinary sodium excretion and the need for renal replacement therapy in advanced chronic kidney disease: a cohort study
Mazarova, A., Molnar, A. O., Akbari, A., Sood, M. M., Hiremath, S. S., Burns, K. D., Ramsay, T., Mallick, R., Knoll, G. A., & Ruzicka, M. (2016) · BMC Nephrology · doi:10.1186/s12882-016-0338-z · Cited by 16
“In our CKD study population, 58 % of patients (LSD and MSD group) had sodium intake within or close to the recommended target with HSD group represented a common salt intake of the general population in western and particularly in Asian countries [16].”
Background
Urinary Sodium and Potassium Excretion and Carotid Atherosclerosis in Chinese Men and Women
Dai, X., Wang, C., Xu, Y. X., Guan, K., Su, Y., & Chen, Y. (2016) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu8100612 · Cited by 16
“The study included 3169 participants 40 to 75 years of age from urban Guangzhou, China, recruited between 2008 and 2010 via subject referral and community advertisement.”
MethodInfluential
Why does the choice of dialysate sodium concentration remain controversial?
Tangvoraphonkchai, K., & Davenport, A. (2018) · Hemodialysis International · doi:10.1111/hdi.12645 · Cited by 17
Assessment of Sodium and Potassium Intakes in Children Aged 6 to 18 Years by 24 h Urinary Excretion in City of Rabat, Morocco
Saeid, N., Elmzibri, M., Hamrani, A., Latifa, Q., Belghiti, H., Berri, H. E., Benjeddou, K., Bouziani, A., Benkirane, H., Taboz, Y., et al. (2018) · Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1155/2018/8687192 · Cited by 16
“In the UK, children and adolescents, aged 4–18 years, surveyed for the UK Diet and Nutrition Investigation in 1992, showed that the major sources of sodium reflect those for adults (cereals contribute 38–40% and meat products contribute 20–24%) [44].”
Background
Dose–response association of 24-hour urine sodium and sodium to potassium ratio with nighttime blood pressure at older ages
Kim, M. K., Kwon, M., Rhee, M., Kim, K., Nah, D.-Y., Kim, S. W., Gu, N., Sung, K., Hong, K.-S., Cho, E.-J., et al. (2019) · European Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1177/2047487318819528 · Cited by 16
National survey to estimate sodium and potassium intake and knowledge attitudes and behaviours towards salt consumption of adults in the Sultanate of Oman
Al‐Mawali, A., D’Elia, L., Jayapal, S. K., Morsi, M. M., Al-Shekaili, W., Pinto, A. D., Al-Kharusi, H., Al-Balushi, Z., Idikula, J., Al-Harrasi, A., et al. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037012 · Cited by 16
Spatiotemporal occurrence, distribution, and characterization of microplastics in salt pans of the coastal region of the Gulf of Mannar, southeast coast of India
Manimozhi, N., Rani, V., Sudhan, C., Manimekalai, D., Shalini, R., & Abarna, K. M. (2022) · Regional Studies in Marine Science · doi:10.1016/j.rsma.2022.102350 · Cited by 17
Mineral-rich solar sea salt generates less oxidative stress in rats than mineral-deficient salt
Gao, T.-C., Cho, J., Feng, L.-Y., Chanmuang, S., Park, S.-Y., Ham, K., Auh, C., & Pai, T.-K. (2014) · Food Science and Biotechnology · doi:10.1007/s10068-014-0128-y · Cited by 16
Testosterone is associated with the cardiovascular autonomic response to a stressor in healthy men
Ramesh, S., Wilton, S. B., Holroyd-Leduc, J. M., Turin, T. C., Sola, D. Y., & Ahmed, S. B. (2014) · Clinical and Experimental Hypertension · doi:10.3109/10641963.2014.933966 · Cited by 16
“First, while cardiac autonomic tone can be influenced by lifestyle factors such as diet, obesity, and smoking (41,47,48) we included only healthy, non-smoking and non-obese subjects in high-salt balance, a state reflective of the typical Western diet (49).”
Background
Characteristic clinical and biochemical profile of recurrent calcium-oxalate nephrolithiasis in patients with metabolic syndrome
Rendina, D., FILIPPO, G. D., Zampa, G., Muscariello, R., Mossetti, G., & Strazzullo, P. (2010) · Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation · doi:10.1093/ndt/gfq664 · Cited by 16
The impact of voluntary targets on the sodium content of processed foods in Brazil, 2011–2013
Nilson, E. A. F., Spaniol, A. M., Gonçalves, V. S. S., de Oliveira, M. L., Campbell, N. R. C., L’Abbé, M. R., & Jaime, P. C. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Hypertension · doi:10.1111/jch.13044 · Cited by 18
Association between socioeconomic factors and urinary sodium-to-potassium ratio: the Nagahama Study
the Nagahama Study group, Yamashita, M., Tabara, Y., Higo, Y., Setoh, K., Kawaguchi, T., Takahashi, Y., Kosugi, S., Nakayama, T., Matsuda, F., et al. (2018) · Hypertension Research · doi:10.1038/s41440-018-0101-x · Cited by 16
Maternal elevated salt consumption and the development of autism spectrum disorder in the offspring
Afroz, K. F., & Alviña, K. (2019) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-019-1666-2 · Cited by 16
Development of Self-Management Scale for Kidney Transplant Recipients, Including Management of Post-Transplantation Chronic Kidney Disease
Kosaka, S., Tanaka, M., Sakai, T., Tomikawa, S., Yoshida, K., Chikaraishi, T., & Kazuma, K. (2013) · ISRN Transplantation · doi:10.5402/2013/619754 · Cited by 16
“The Asian population, including the Japanese, and the populations of Canada, Colombia,Hungary, Bassiano (Italy), Poland, and Portugal as reported in INTERSALT [18], are noted for consuming excessive sodium.”
Background
Salt intake per dish in the Japanese diet: a clue to help establish dietary goals at home
Imamoto, M., Takada, T., Sasaki, S., Kato, K., & Onishi, Y. (2021) · Journal of Nutritional Science · doi:10.1017/jns.2021.88 · Cited by 15
“Reinforcing salt reduction at home remains important for further reducing salt intake, as the household diet accounts for up to 70 % of the salt intake in Japan((8,9)).”
Background
High salt intake damages myocardial viability and induces cardiac remodeling via chronic inflammation in the elderly
Li, K., Song, H., Wei, F., Liu, D., Zhao, Y., Yin, H., Cui, Y., Zhang, H., & Liu, Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.3389/fcvm.2022.952691 · Cited by 15
Addition of fish oil microcapsules to meat products – Implications for omega-3 enrichment and salt reduction
Solomando, J. C., Vázquez-López, F., Antequera, T., Folgado, C., & Pérez‐Palacios, T. (2023) · Journal of Functional Foods · doi:10.1016/j.jff.2023.105575 · Cited by 15
Salt Intake Estimation from Urine Samples in South Asian Population: Scoping Review
Afroza, U., Abrar, A. K., Nowar, A., Akhtar, J., Mamun, M. A. A., Sobhan, S. M. M., Cobb, L. K., Ide, N., & Choudhury, S. R. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15204358 · Cited by 15
“: 1 mmol Na = 1 mEq Na; 1 mEq Na = 23 mg Na; 1000 mg Na (1 g Na) = 2.54 g salt [15].”
Influential
Effects of Lentinus Edodes on the physico-chemical, oxidation and flavor characteristics of carp surimi
Kong, Q., Lin, S., Sheng, M., Geng, Y., Zhang, Z., & Chen, D. (2024) · Food Bioscience · doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2024.103626 · Cited by 15
Sodium and nutrition labelling: a qualitative study exploring New Zealand consumers’ food purchasing behaviours
McLean, R. M., & Hoek, J. A. (2013) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980013001079 · Cited by 15
“Few countries meet the WHO-recommended population dietary target of a maximum of 5 g of salt daily((1)).”
Background
Application of Choices criteria in Brazil: Impact on nutrient intake and adequacy of food products in relation to compounds associated to the risk of non-transmissible chronic diseases
de Menezes, E. W., Lopes, T. D. V. C., Mazzini, E. R., Dan, M. C. T., Godoy, C., & Giuntini, E. B. (2013) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.02.031 · Cited by 15
Is the association between salt intake and blood pressure mediated by body mass index and central adiposity?
Haghighatdoost, F., Sarrafzadegan, N., Khosravi, A., Noori, F., Boshtam, M., Mohammadifard, N., Abdollhi, Z., & Azadbakht, L. (2013) · PubMed · Cited by 15
Design and methodology of a community-based cluster-randomized controlled trial for dietary behaviour change in rural Kerala
Daivadanam, M., Wahlström, R., Ravindran, T. K. S., Sarma, P. S., Sivasankaran, S., & Thankappan, K. R. (2013) · Global Health Action · doi:10.3402/gha.v6i0.20993 · Cited by 15
“Such strategies will work in contexts where consumption of ready-to-eat or processed foods exceeds that of home-cooked foods (25).”
Background
Dissociation of thirst and sodium appetite in the furo/cap model of extracellular dehydration and a role for N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the sensitization of sodium appetite.
Hurley, S. W., & Johnson, A. K. (2013) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/a0034948 · Cited by 15
Salt intake in Eastern Saudi Arabia
Alkhunaizi, A. M., Aljishi, H., & Sodah, Z. A. A. (2013) · Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal · doi:10.26719/2013.19.11.915 · Cited by 17
Reducing the Levels of Sodium, Saturated Animal Fat, and Nitrite in Dry-Cured Pork Meat Products: A Major Challenge
Safa, H., Portanguen, S., & Mirade, P. (2017) · Food and Nutrition Sciences · doi:10.4236/fns.2017.84029 · Cited by 15
“Numerous studies have shown that in European and Northern American countries, about 75% - 85% of sodium intake is attributable to industrially-manufactured food products and foods eaten away from the home, against 10% - 15% due to salt present naturally in foods, and table salt added at home during cooking and eating…”
Background
Sea Salt
Galvis-Sánchez, A. C., Lopes, J. A., Delgadillo, I., & Rangel, A. O. S. S. (2013) · Comprehensive analytical chemistry · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-59562-1.00026-8 · Cited by 15
Genome-wide analysis of polymorphism × sodium interaction effect on blood pressure identifies a novel 3′-BCL11B gene desert locus
Hachiya, T., Narita, A., Ohmomo, H., Sutoh, Y., Komaki, S., Tanno, K., Satoh, M., Sakata, K., Hitomi, J., Nakamura, M., et al. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-32074-1 · Cited by 16
The Digital Education to Limit Salt in the Home Program Improved Salt-Related Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors in Parents
Khokhar, D., Nowson, C. A., Margerison, C., West, M. L., Campbell, K. J., Booth, A., & Grimes, C. A. (2018) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/12234 · Cited by 18
“Although discretionary salt use is not the main source of salt in the Australian diet (accounting for 10%-15% of salt consumed [61,62]), this improvement highlights adherence to one of the program’s key behavioral messages (ie, stop using the salt shaker on the table and during cooking).”
The Predictors of High Dietary Salt Intake among Hypertensive Patients in Iran
Reyhani, P., Azabdaftari, F., Ebrahimi‐Mameghani, M., Jafarabadi, M. A., & Shokrvash, B. (2020) · International Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1155/2020/6748696 · Cited by 15
“+erefore, control of salt intake is considered as a crucial element for a healthy and highly-qualified life [4, 11, 12].”
Background
Estimation of sodium and potassium intakes assessed by two 24-hour urine collections in a city of Indonesia
Sari, D. W., Noguchi‐Watanabe, M., Sasaki, S., Sahar, J., & Yamamoto-Mitani, N. (2021) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114521000271 · Cited by 17
“higher food consumption reflects higher nutrient intake (14,72) .”
Background
Association between 24-h urinary sodium and potassium excretion and blood pressure among Chinese adults aged 18–69 years
Du, X., Fang, L., Xu, J., Chen, X., Bai, Y., & Zhong, J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-83049-8 · Cited by 16
Assessment of the contribution of industrially processed foods to salt and iodine intake in Thailand
Chotivichien, S., Chongchaithet, N., Aksornchu, P., Boonmongkol, N., Duangmusik, P., Knowles, J., & Sinawat, S. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0253590 · Cited by 15
A Modelling Approach to Estimate the Impact of Sodium Reduction in Soups on Cardiovascular Health in the Netherlands
Bruins, M. J., Dötsch‐Klerk, M., Matthee, J., Kearney, M., van Elk, K., Weber, P., & Eggersdorfer, M. L. (2015) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu7095375 · Cited by 15
“In contrast, in Asian countries discretionary salt contributes most to sodium intake [8].”
The increasing burden of hypertension in Nigeria – can a dietary salt reduction strategy change the trend?
Mezue, K. N. (2013) · Perspectives in Public Health · doi:10.1177/1757913913499658 · Cited by 15
Comparison of salt taste thresholds and salt usage behaviours between adults in Myanmar and Korea.
Cho, H.-J., Kim, S. M., Jeong, S. S., & Kim, S. B. (2016) · PubMed · doi:10.6133/apjcn.092015.32 · Cited by 15
How do university workers eat at the workplace?
Lima, J. P. M., Costa, S. A., & da Rocha, A. M. C. N. (2018) · Nutrition & Food Science · doi:10.1108/nfs-07-2017-0141 · Cited by 16
Diet, Physical Activity, Lifestyle Behaviors, and Prevalence of Childhood Obesity in Irish Children: The Cork Children’s Lifestyle Study Protocol
Keane, E., Kearney, P. M., Perry, I. J., Browne, G. M., & Harrington, J. M. (2014) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.3140 · Cited by 15
“For example, little is known about dietary behaviors including food choice [30] and salt intake in children [31].”
Pasta as a Source of Minerals in the Diets of Poles; Effect of Culinary Processing of Pasta on the Content of Minerals
Jachimowicz-Rogowska, K., Winiarska‐Mieczan, A., Baranowska‐Wójcik, E., & Bąkowski, M. (2021) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods10092131 · Cited by 14
“The predominant sources of sodium in a diet are processed foods and salt added to meals [13,14].”
Background
Changes in the Sodium Content of Foods Sold in Four Latin American Countries: 2015 to 2018
Blanco‐Metzler, A., Vega-Solano, J., Franco‐Arellano, B., Allemandi, L., Burgos, R., Saavedra‐Garcia, L., Weippert, M. V., Sivakumar, B., Benavides-Aguilar, K., Tiscornia, M. V., et al. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13114108 · Cited by 14
Awareness, behavior, and determinants of dietary salt intake in adults: results from the National NCD Monitoring Survey, India
Mathur, P., Kulothungan, V., Nath, A., S, V. U. K., & Ramakrishnan, L. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42694-x · Cited by 16
“The salt added during food preparation constitutes the primary source of dietary salt in low-and middle-income such as India 40 .”
Background
Insight into the keystones of Chinese broad bean paste fermentation: Brewing techniques, chemosensory characteristics, and microbial community
Zhao, S., Hao, C., Niu, C., Lü, J., Wang, L., Shi, Y., & Li, Q. (2024) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104775 · Cited by 14
Urinary and dietary sodium to potassium ratio as a useful marker for estimating blood pressure among older women in Indonesian urban coastal areas
Farapti, F., Nadhiroh, S. R., Sayogo, S., & Mardiana, N. (2017) · Mediterranean Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.3233/mnm-17138 · Cited by 17
“Some countries from epidemiological studies demonstrated that low Na intake presented in women >50 years old, subjects with lower educated and low energy intakes [39, 40].”
Knowledge and behaviors related to dietary salt and sources of dietary sodium in north India
Aparna, P., Salve, H. R., Krishnan, A., Ramakrishnan, L., Gupta, S. K., & Nongkynrih, B. (2019) · Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care · doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_49_19 · Cited by 16
“This reiterates the fact that discretionary salt is the primary source of salt in diet in this part of the world.[28]”
Background
Change in mean salt intake over time using 24-h urine versus overnight and spot urine samples: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Santos, J. A., Li, K. C., Huang, L., McLean, R. M., Petersen, K. S., Tanna, G. L. D., & Webster, J. L. (2020) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-020-00651-8 · Cited by 14
Transcriptome sequencing reveals high-salt diet-induced abnormal liver metabolic pathways in mice
Li, Y., Lyu, Y., Huang, J., Huang, K., & Yu, J. (2021) · BMC Gastroenterology · doi:10.1186/s12876-021-01912-4 · Cited by 14
High Adherence to Mediterranean Diet Is Not Associated with an Improved Sodium and Potassium Intake
Viroli, G., Gonçalves, C., Pinho, O., Silva-Santos, T., Padrão, P., & Moreira, P. A. M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13114151 · Cited by 16
“30 g/day (100 mmoL/day) [11], above the”
Background
Sodium, chloride, and potassium
Preuss, H. G. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-66162-1.00028-7 · Cited by 14
Urinary and dietary sodium and potassium associated with blood pressure control in treated hypertensive kidney transplant recipients: an observational study
Saint‐Remy, A., Somja, M., Gellner, K., Weekers, L. E., Bonvoisin, C., & Krzesinski, J.-M. (2012) · BMC Nephrology · doi:10.1186/1471-2369-13-121 · Cited by 16
“needs [26] and this in spite of the fact that there are hypertensive treated by antihypertensive drugs.”
Background
Clinical application of the second morning urine method for estimating salt intake in patients with hypertension
Kawamura, M., & Kawasaki, T. (2014) · Clinical and Experimental Hypertension · doi:10.3109/10641963.2014.913601 · Cited by 14
“calculate salt intake from food composition tables, making them difficult to use in clinical practice (28).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Dietary Salt Is a Public Health Hazard That Requires Vigorous Attack
Neal, B. C. (2014) · Canadian Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2014.02.005 · Cited by 14
‘When operating a cafeteria, sales come before nutrition’ – finding barriers and facilitators to serving reduced-sodium meals in worksite cafeterias
Park, S., & Lee, J. (2015) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980015002827 · Cited by 16
“Given the importance of lowering sodium intake in most world populations((25)), there is a serious gap in previous worksite environmental interventions.”
Background
The provision of ultra-processed foods and their contribution to sodium availability in Australian long day care centres
O’Halloran, S., Lacy, K. E., Woods, J., Grimes, C. A., Campbell, K. J., & Nowson, C. A. (2017) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s136898001700132x · Cited by 14
“are common in children aged 1–6 years in developed countries, with mean reported intake of >1000mg/d (2·6 g salt equivalent/d)((1)).”
Highlighting of Urinary Sodium and Potassium among Indonesian Schoolchildren Aged 9–12 Years: The Contribution of School Food
Farapti, F., Sulistyowati, M., Artanti, K. D., Setyaningtyas, S. W., Sumarmi, S., & Mulyana, B. (2019) · Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1155/2019/1028672 · Cited by 14
“Consequently, Na intake is still a public health problem worldwide [11].”
Background
Sodium Intake and Target Organ Damage in Hypertension—An Update about the Role of a Real Villain
Nista, F., Gatto, F., Albertelli, M., & Musso, N. R. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17082811 · Cited by 13
The association of carotid artery atherosclerosis with the estimated excretion levels of urinary sodium and potassium and their ratio in Chinese adults
Peng, S., Wang, J., Xiao, Y., Yin, L., Peng, Y., Yang, L., Yang, P., Wang, Y., Cao, X., Li, X., et al. (2021) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-021-00710-8 · Cited by 14
“There are two main approaches to estimate sodium intake, namely, measuring urinary excretion or assessing dietary intake [17].”
Background
Adolescence as a key developmental window for nutrition promotion and cardiometabolic disease prevention
Carducci, B., Chen, Z. H., Campisi, S. C., & Miliku, K. (2025) · npj Metabolic Health and Disease · doi:10.1038/s44324-025-00082-1 · Cited by 21
“Other attempts to synthesize empirical evidence on nationally representative dietary patterns, ultra-processed foods including sugar and salt consumption, in this population, have been limited to high-income countries (Health Behavior in School-aged Children Survey) 14 – 16 .”
Salt Reduction Intervention in Families Investigating Metabolic, Behavioral and Health Effects of Targeted Intake Reductions: Study Protocol for a Four Months Three-Armed, Randomized, Controlled “Real-Life” Trial
Bjoernsbo, K. S., Riis, N. L., Andreasen, A. H., Petersen, J., Lassen, A. D., Trolle, E., Frederiksen, A. K. S., Munk, J. K., & Toft, U. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16193532 · Cited by 14
“However, excess salt intake during early life leads to taste preferences for saltier foods [8] and there is good evidence that salt intake plays an important role in regulating BP in children too [9].”
Background
Development of a method for controlling salt and sodium use during meal preparation for food services
Frantz, C. B., Veiros, M. B., Proença, R. P. D. C., & de Sousa, A. A. (2013) · Revista de Nutrição · doi:10.1590/s1415-52732013000100008 · Cited by 13
“2006 [cited 2009 Mar 2]; 17(4): 173-181.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Drinking water contributes to high salt consumption in young adults in coastal Bangladesh
Talukder, M. R., Rutherford, S., Phung, D. T., Malek, A., Khan, S., & Chu, C. M.-Y. (2015) · Journal of Water and Health · doi:10.2166/wh.2015.129 · Cited by 13
Cluster randomised controlled trial of home cook intervention to reduce salt intake in China: a protocol study
Zhang, X., Hu, X. F., Ma, J., Zhang, P., Li, Y., Luo, R., He, F. J., MacGregor, G. A., Wang, J., & Yin, Z. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-033842 · Cited by 13
Cyperus esculentusL. (tigernut) mitigates high salt diet‐associated testicular toxicity in Wistar rats by targeting testicular steroidogenesis, oxidative stress and inflammation
Nwangwa, J. N., Udefa, A. L., Amama, E. A., Inah, I. O., Ibrahim, H. J., Iheduru, S. C., Okorie, N. E., Ogar, J. A., Madaki, F. N., Owai, P. O., et al. (2020) · Andrologia · doi:10.1111/and.13780 · Cited by 13
Trend in potassium intake and Na/K ratio in the Italian adult population between the 2008 and 2018 CUORE project surveys
Donfrancesco, C., Noce, C. L., Russo, O., Buttari, B., Profumo, E., Minutoli, D., Lonardo, A. D., Iacone, R., Vespasiano, F., Vannucchi, S., et al. (2020) · Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2020.11.015 · Cited by 13
High salt activates p97 to reduce host antiviral immunity by restricting Viperin induction
Yuan, Y., Miao, Y., Ren, T., Huang, F., Qian, L., Chen, X., Zuo, Y., Zhang, H., He, J., Qiao, C., et al. (2021) · EMBO Reports · doi:10.15252/embr.202153466 · Cited by 14
“…chloride (salt, NaCl) is essential for the maintenance of normal physiological reactions in the body, while excess salt intake, which remains prevalent in both adult and children populations around the world, leads to a marked increase in the incidence of numerous disorders (Brown et al , 2009).”

Authors: Brown, I. J., Tzoulaki, I., Candeias, V., & Elliott, P.
Affiliations: Imperial College London (GB)
World Health Organization (CH)
Corresponding author: Elliott, P.
ORCID: Brown, I. J
Tzoulaki, I.
Elliott, P.
Venue: International Journal of Epidemiology
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2009-04-07
Volume: 38
Issue: 3
Pages: 791-813
ISSN: 0300-5771 (ISSN-L)
1464-3685
DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyp139
OpenAlex: W2154301407
Cited by: 1,173
References: 157
Citations by year: 2026: 13 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 61 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 87 · 2020: 94 · 2019: 81 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 98 · 2015: 109 · 2014: 95 · 2013: 92 · 2012: 61
FWCI: 46.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: International Journal of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: World Health Organization
Topics: Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Sodium Intake and Health
Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Blood Pressure and Hypertension Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
Keywords: sodium intake, salt reduction, sodium excretion, INTERSALT, INTERMAP, sodium sources, processed foods, soy sauce, blood pressure, cardiovascular health, salt reduction policy, cross-national comparison
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Cardiovascular Diseases, Child, Child, Preschool, Cooking, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Diet, Feeding Behavior, Female, Health Promotion, Humans, Hypertension, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice, Male, Middle Aged, Global Health, Sodium Chloride, Dietary, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Salt intakes around the world: implications for public health

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks