High‐molecular‐weight β‐amyloid oligomers are elevated in cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimer patients
Abstract
There is accumulating evidence that soluble amyloid-beta (Abeta) oligomers, rather than amyloid fibrils, are the principal pathogenic species in Alzheimer disease (AD). Here, we have developed a novel enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) specific for high-molecular-weight (HMW) Abeta oligomers. Analysis of Abeta oligomers derived from synthetic Abeta 1-42, by size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), revealed that our ELISA specifically detected HMW Abeta oligomers of 40-200 kDa. Using this ELISA, we detected significantly higher (P<0.0001) signals in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from 25 patients with AD or mild cognitive impairment (MCI), compared to 25 age-matched controls. As a test for discriminating between the AD/MCI and control groups, the area under the curve in receiver operating characteristic analysis for the CSF HMW Abeta oligomers was greater than that for CSF Abeta x-42. Furthermore, the CSF levels of HMW Abeta oligomers showed a negative correlation with Mini-Mental State Examination scores in the AD/MCI group. We conclude that the CSF HMW Abeta oligomers detected by our ELISA could be useful as a diagnostic marker for AD, and also as a potential surrogate marker for disease severity. Our results support the idea that soluble HMW Abeta oligomers play a critical role in the pathogenesis and progression of AD.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Nanotechnology-based immunoassays have established an Alzheimer's disease-dependent accumulation of oligomers in human cerebrospinal fluid.
“These assays, which can be many orders of magnitude more sensitive than ELISAs, have established an AD-dependent accumulation of oligomers in human CSF (Fukumoto et al., 2010; Gao et al., 2010; Georganopoulou et al., 2005; Haes et al., 2005).”
From The Aβ oligomer hypothesis for synapse failure and memory loss in Alzheimer’s disease (2011) · cites this paper as Fukumoto et al., 2010
Cites
1 retracted
RETRACTED ARTICLE: A specific amyloid-β protein assembly in the brain impairs memory
Lesné, S., Koh, M. T., Kotilinek, L., Kayed, R., Glabe, C. G., Yang, A., Gallagher, M., & Ashe, K. H. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04533 · Cited by 2,769 · cited 1× · see citing works
“It is noteworthy and potentially significant that the HMW A oligomers specifically detected by our ELISA includes 56-kDa dodecamers (12 mers), which have the same molecular weight as A *56, which has been reported to be one of the most toxic A oligomer species (17).”
RetractedMcKhann, G., Drachman, D., Folstein, M., Katzman, R., Price, D., & Stadlan, E. M. (1984) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.34.7.939 · Cited by 27,915 · see citing works
The Amyloid Hypothesis of Alzheimer’s Disease: Progress and Problems on the Road to Therapeutics
Hardy, J., & Selkoe, D. J. (2002) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1072994 · Cited by 13,864 · see citing works
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
&NA; (1988) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/00002093-198802020-00022 · Cited by 12,603 · see citing works
Mild Cognitive Impairment: Clinical Characterization and Outcome
Petersen, R. C., Smith, G. E., Waring, S. C., Ivnik, R. J., Tangalos, E. G., & Kokmen, E. (1999) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.56.3.303 · Cited by 8,980 · see citing works
Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity
Petersen, R. C. (2004) · Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01388.x · Cited by 7,864 · see citing works
Alzheimer's disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis
Hardy, J. A., & Higgins, G. A. (1992) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1566067 · Cited by 7,484 · see citing works
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed
Cooper, A. M., & Michels, R. (1981) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.138.1.128 · Cited by 7,417 · see citing works
Walsh, D. M., Klyubin, I., Fadeeva, J. V., Cullen, W. K., Anwyl, R., Wolfe, M. S., Rowan, M. J., & Selkoe, D. J. (2002) · Nature · doi:10.1038/416535a · Cited by 4,291 · see citing works
Common structure of soluble amyloid oligomers implies common mechanism of pathogenesis
Kayed, R., Head, E., Thompson, J. L., McIntire, T. M., Milton, S. C., Cotman, C. W., & Glabe, C. G. (2003) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1079469 · Cited by 4,064 · see citing works
Shankar, G. M., Li, S., Mehta, T. H., Garcia-Munoz, A., Shepardson, N. E., Smith, I., Brett, F. M., Farrell, M. A., Rowan, M. J., Lemere, C. A., et al. (2008) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm1782 · Cited by 3,685 · see citing works
Lambert, M. P., Barlow, A. K., Chromy, B. A., Edwards, C., Freed, R., Liosatos, M., Morgan, T. E., Rozovsky, I., Trommer, B., Viola, K. L., et al. (1998) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.95.11.6448 · Cited by 3,506 · see citing works
Jarrett, J. T., Berger, E. P., & Lansbury, P. T. (1993) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/bi00069a001 · Cited by 2,022 · see citing works
Iwatsubo, T., Odaka, A., Suzuki, N., Mizusawa, H., Nukina, N., & Ihara, Y. (1994) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/0896-6273(94)90458-8 · Cited by 1,774 · see citing works
Stefani, M., & Dobson, C. M. (2003) · Journal of Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1007/s00109-003-0464-5 · Cited by 1,643 · see citing works
Suzuki, N., Cheung, T. T., Cai, X.-D., Odaka, A., Otvos, L., Eckman, C., Golde, T. E., & Younkin, S. G. (1994) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.8191290 · Cited by 1,471 · see citing works
Oligomeric and fibrillar species of amyloid-β peptides differentially affect neuronal viability
Dahlgren, K. N., Manelli, A. M., Stine, W. B., Baker, L. K., Krafft, G. A., & LaDu, M. J. (2002) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m201750200 · Cited by 1,452 · see citing works
CSF markers for incipient Alzheimer's disease
Blennow, K., & Hampel, H. (2003) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(03)00530-1 · Cited by 1,291 · see citing works
Targeting small Aβ oligomers: the solution to an Alzheimer's disease conundrum?
Klein, W. (2001) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01749-5 · Cited by 989 · see citing works
Bernstein, S. L., Dupuis, N., Lazo, N., Wyttenbach, T., Condron, M., Bitan, G., Teplow, D., Shea, J., Ruotolo, B., Robinson, C., et al. (2009) · Nature Chemistry · doi:10.1038/nchem.247 · Cited by 847 · see citing works
Georganopoulou, D. G., Chang, L., Nam, J.-M., Thaxton, C. S., Mufson, E. J., Klein, W. L., & Mirkin, C. A. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0409336102 · Cited by 835 · see citing works
Normal and Abnormal Biology of the Beta-Amyloid Precursor Protein
Selkoe, D. J. (1994) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.17.030194.002421 · Cited by 827 · see citing works
Structure–neurotoxicity relationships of amyloid β-protein oligomers
Ono, K., Condron, M. M., & Teplow, D. B. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0905127106 · Cited by 774 · see citing works
Alzheimer's Disease: A Central Role for Amyloid
Selkoe, D. J. (1994) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1097/00005072-199409000-00003 · Cited by 752 · see citing works
Tau protein and the neurofibrillary pathology of Alzheimer's disease
Goedert, M. (1993) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/0166-2236(93)90078-z · Cited by 718 · see citing works
Motter, R., Vigo‐Pelfrey, C., Kholodenko, D., Barbour, R., Johnson‐Wood, K., Galasko, D., Chang, L., Miller, B., Clark, C., Green, R., et al. (1995) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410380413 · Cited by 701 · see citing works
A century-old debate on protein aggregation and neurodegeneration enters the clinic
Lansbury, P. T., & Lashuel, H. A. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature05290 · Cited by 681 · see citing works
Sunderland, T., Linker, G., Mirza, N., Putnam, K. T., Friedman, D. L., Kimmel, L. H., Bergeson, J., Manetti, G. J., Zimmermann, M., Tang, B., et al. (2003) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.289.16.2094 · Cited by 656 · see citing works
Barghorn, S., Nimmrich, V., Striebinger, A., Krantz, C., Keller, P., Janson, B., Bahr, M., Schmidt, M., Bitner, R. S., Harlan, J., et al. (2005) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03407.x · Cited by 559 · see citing works
Kanai, M., Matsubara, E., Isoe, K., Urakami, K., Nakashima, K., Arai, H., Sasaki, H., Abe, K., Iwatsubo, T., Kosaka, T., et al. (1998) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410440108 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Biomarkers of neurodegeneration for diagnosis and monitoring therapeutics
Shaw, L. M. J., Korecka, M., Clark, C. M., Lee, V. M. ‐., & Trojanowski, J. Q. (2007) · Nature Reviews Drug Discovery · doi:10.1038/nrd2176 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Neurochemical diagnosis of Alzheimer’s dementia by CSF Aβ42, Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio and total tau
Lewczuk, P., Esselmann, H., Otto, M., Maler, J. M., Henkel, A. W., Henkel, M. K., Eikenberg, O., Antz, C., Krause, W., Reulbach, U., et al. (2003) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/s0197-4580(03)00086-1 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
Sensitive ELISA detection of amyloid‐β protofibrils in biological samples
Englund, H., Sehlin, D., Johansson, A., Nilsson, L. N. G., Gellerfors, P., Paulie, S., Lannfelt, L., & Pettersson, F. E. (2007) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04759.x · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Fluctuations of CSF amyloid-β levels: Implications for a diagnostic and therapeutic biomarker
Bateman, R. J., Wen, G., Morris, J. C., & Holtzman, D. M. (2007) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000256043.50901.e3 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Age but Not Diagnosis Is the Main Predictor of Plasma Amyloid β-Protein Levels
Fukumoto, H., Tennis, M. K., Locascio, J. J., Hyman, B. T., Growdon, J. H., & Irizarry, M. C. (2003) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.60.7.958 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Self-citationLee, E. B., Leng, L. Z., Zhang, B., Kwong, L. K., Trojanowski, J. Q., Abel, T. G., & Lee, V. M. ‐. (2005) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m511018200 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Xia, W., Yang, T., Shankar, G. M., Smith, I. M., Shen, Y., Walsh, D. M., & Selkoe, D. J. (2009) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneurol.2008.565 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Oligomerization and Toxicity of β-Amyloid-42 Implicated in Alzheimer's Disease
El‐Agnaf, O. M. A., Mahil, D. S., PATEL, B. P., & Austen, B. (2000) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1006/bbrc.2000.3051 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Inhibition of fibril formation in beta-amyloid peptide by a novel series of benzofurans.
Howlett, D. R., Perry, A. E., GODFREY, F., et al. (1999) · PubMed · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Ward, R. V., JENNINGS, K. H., Jepras, R., Neville, W. A., OWEN, D. E., HAWKINS, J., Christie, G., Davis, J. B., George, A. R., Karran, E. H., et al. (2000) · Biochemical Journal · doi:10.1042/bj3480137 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Assessment of CSF levels of tau protein in mildly demented patients with Alzheimer's disease
Galasko, D. R., Clark, C., Chang, L., Miller, B. L., Green, R. C., Motter, R. N., & Seubert, P. A. (1997) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.48.3.632 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Long Amyloid .beta.-Protein Secreted from Wild-Type Human Neuroblastoma IMR-32 Cells
Asami-Odaka, A., Ishibashi, Y., Kikuchi, T., Kitada, C., & Suzuki, N. (1995) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/bi00032a022 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Amyloid β protein 42(43) in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Alzheimer's disease
Tamaoka, A., Sawamura, N., Fukushima, T., Shoji, S., Matsubara, E., Shoji, M., Hirai, S., Furiya, Y., Endoh, R., & Mori, H. (1997) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/s0022-510x(96)00314-0 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Alzheimer’s β-peptide oligomer formation at physiologic concentrations
LeVine, H. (2004) · Analytical Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.ab.2004.08.014 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Inhibition of fibril formation in β-amyloid peptide by a novel series of benzofurans
Howlett, D. R., PERRY, A. E., GODFREY, F., et al. (1999) · Biochemical Journal · doi:10.1042/bj3400283 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Kamboh, M. I., Ferrell, R. E., & Kottke, B. A. (1988) · Journal of Lipid Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-2275(20)38431-5 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Plasma Levels of amyloid β proteins Aβ1–40 and Aβ1–42(43) are elevated in Down's syndrome
Tokuda, T., Fukushima, T., Ikeda, S., Sekijima, Y., Shoji, S., Yanagisawa, N., & Tamaoka, A. (1997) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410410220 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationFukumoto, H., Tomita, T., Matsunaga, H., Ishibashi, Y., Saido, T. C., & Iwatsubo, T. (1999) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199909290-00017 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationSoluble oligomers for the diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases
El‐Agnaf, O. M. A., Walsh, D. M., & Allsop, D. (2003) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(03)00481-2 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationHelmond, Z. V., Heesom, K. J., & Love, S. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.09.002 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Inhibition of fibril formation in β-amyloid peptide by a novel series of benzofurans
Howlett, D. R., PERRY, A. E., GODFREY, F., et al. (1999) · Biochemical Journal · doi:10.1042/0264-6021:3400283 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Prednisolone (30–60 mg/day) for diseases other than AD decreases amyloid β-peptides in CSF
Tokuda, T., Oide, T., Tamaoka, A., et al. (2002) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.58.9.1415 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Amyloid-β Pathway in Alzheimer’s Disease
Hampel, H., Hardy, J., Blennow, K., Chen, C., Perry, G., Kim, S. H., Villemagne, V. L., Aisen, P., Vendruscolo, M., Iwatsubo, T., et al. (2021) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01249-0 · Cited by 1,952 · see citing works
The Aβ oligomer hypothesis for synapse failure and memory loss in Alzheimer’s disease
Ferreira, S. T., & Klein, W. L. (2011) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2011.08.003 · Cited by 442 · see citing works
Ferreira, S. T., Lourenco, M. V., Oliveira, M. M., & De Felice, F. G. (2015) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2015.00191 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Role of Amyloid-β and Tau Proteins in Alzheimer’s Disease: Confuting the Amyloid Cascade
Gulisano, W., Maugeri, D., Baltrons, M. A., Fà, M., Amato, A., Palmeri, A., D’Adamio, L., Grassi, C., Devanand, D. P., Honig, L. S., et al. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-179935 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
The path forward in Alzheimer's disease therapeutics: Reevaluating the amyloid cascade hypothesis
Tolar, M., Abushakra, S., & Sabbagh, M. (2020) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2019.09.075 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Amyloid β-protein oligomers and Alzheimer’s disease
Hayden, E. Y., & Teplow, D. B. (2013) · Alzheimer's Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/alzrt226 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Bivalent Brain Shuttle Increases Antibody Uptake by Monovalent Binding to the Transferrin Receptor
Hultqvist, G., Syvänen, S., Fang, X. T., Lannfelt, L., & Sehlin, D. (2017) · Theranostics · doi:10.7150/thno.17155 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Hong, S., Ostaszewski, B. L., Yang, T., O’Malley, T. T., Jin, M., Yanagisawa, K., Li, S., Bartels, T., & Selkoe, D. J. (2014) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.02.027 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Fluid Biomarkers in Alzheimer Disease
Blennow, K., Zetterberg, H., & Fagan, A. M. (2012) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a006221 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Agis-Torres, A., Sollhuber, M., Fernandez, M., & Sanchez-Montero, J. M. (2014) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x113116660047 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Goure, W. F., Krafft, G. A., Jerecic, J., & Hefti, F. (2014) · Alzheimer's Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/alzrt272 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
The keystone of Alzheimer pathogenesis might be sought in Aβ physiology
Puzzo, D., Gulisano, W., Arancio, O., & Palmeri, A. (2015) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.08.039 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Aβ40 Oligomers Identified as a Potential Biomarker for the Diagnosis of Alzheimer's Disease
Gao, C. M., Yam, A. Y., Wang, X., Magdangal, E., Salisbury, C., Peretz, D., Zuckermann, R. N., Connolly, M. D., Hansson, O., Minthon, L., et al. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015725 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Identification of Low Molecular Weight Pyroglutamate Aβ Oligomers in Alzheimer Disease
Wirths, O., Erck, C., Martens, H., Harmeier, A., Geumann, C., Jawhar, S., Kumar, S., Multhaup, G., Walter, J., Ingelsson, M., et al. (2010) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m110.178707 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Krantic, S., Isorce, N., Mechawar, N., Davoli, M. A., Vignault, E., Albuquerque, M., Chabot, J.-G., Moyse, E., Chauvin, J.-P., Aubert, I., et al. (2012) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2011-110830 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Amyloid-β Oligomers Relate to Cognitive Decline in Alzheimer's Disease
Jongbloed, W., Bruggink, K. A., Kester, M. I., Visser, P.-J., Scheltens, P., Blankenstein, M. A., Verbeek, M. M., Teunissen, C. E., & Veerhuis, R. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-142136 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Goñi, F., Herline, K., Peyser, D., Wong, K., Ji, Y., Sun, Y., Mehta, P., & Wisniewski, T. (2013) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/1742-2094-10-150 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Sun, L., Liu, D., Fu, D., Yue, T., Scharre, D., & Zhang, L. (2021) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2020.126733 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Alzheimer's disease biomarkers: correspondence between human studies and animal models
Sabbagh, J. J., Kinney, J. W., & Cummings, J. L. (2013) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2013.04.010 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
- Authors
- Fukumoto, H., Tokuda, T., Kasai, T., Ishigami, N., Hidaka, H., Kondo, M., Allsop, D., & Nakagawa, M.
- Affiliations
- Takeda (Japan) (JP)
- Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine (JP)
- Shinshu University (JP)
- Lancaster University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Tokuda, Takahiko
- Venue
- The FASEB Journal
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2010-03-25
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 2716-2726
- ISSN
- 0892-6638 (ISSN-L)
- 1530-6860
- OpenAlex
- W2152948641
- Cited by
- 264
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 18.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The FASEB Journal (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Lancaster EPrints (Lancaster University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
- Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (20591007)
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Keywords
- amyloid-beta oligomers, Alzheimer's disease, mild cognitive impairment, cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers, ELISA development, amyloid-beta 42, disease severity, diagnostic biomarkers, Mini-Mental State Examination
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Alzheimer Disease, Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Molecular Weight, Biomarkers, Case-Control Studies, Amyloid beta-Peptides, Protein Multimerization
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review