Determining the effects of training duration on the behavioral expression of habitual control in humans: a multilaboratory investigation
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Abstract
It has been suggested that there are two distinct and parallel mechanisms for controlling instrumental behavior in mammals: goal-directed actions and habits. To gain an understanding of how these two systems interact to control behavior, it is essential to characterize the mechanisms by which the balance between these systems is influenced by experience. Studies in rodents have shown that the amount of training governs the relative expression of these two systems: Behavior is goal-directed following moderate training, but the more extensively an instrumental action is trained, the more it becomes habitual. It is less clear whether humans exhibit similar training effects on the expression of goal-directed and habitual behavior, as human studies have reported contradictory findings. To tackle these contradictory findings, we formed a consortium, where four laboratories undertook a preregistered experimental induction of habits by manipulating the amount of training. There was no statistical evidence for a main effect of the amount of training on the formation and expression of habits. However, exploratory analyses suggest a moderating effect of the affective component of stress on the impact of training over habit expression. Participants who were lower in affective stress appeared to be initially goal-directed, but became habitual with increased training, whereas participants who were high in affective stress were already habitual even after moderate training, thereby manifesting insensitivity to overtraining effects. Our findings highlight the importance of the role of moderating variables such as individual differences in stress and anxiety when studying the experimental induction of habits in humans.
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Chronic stress tips the balance of behavioral control towards habit.
“Chronic stress tips the balance of behavioral control towards habit1–5.”
From A dual-pathway architecture for stress to disrupt agency and promote habit (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
After chronic stress, people become less able to adapt their behavior when its outcome has been devalued.
“Indeed, after chronic stress, people become less able to adapt their behavior when its outcome has been devalued1–5.”
From A dual-pathway architecture for stress to disrupt agency and promote habit (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
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Wuensch, L., Stussi, Y., Vernede, T., Murray, R. J., Sander, D., Péron, J., & Pool, E. R. (2025) · PLOS mental health. · doi:10.1371/journal.pmen.0000323 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationHandel, S. N., & Smith, R. J. (2023) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1002/jeab.889 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Su, H., Ye, T., Cao, S., & Hu, C. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1416222 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Liu, Z., Zhang, Y., Wen, C., Yuan, J., Zhang, J., & Seger, C. A. (2025) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1315-24.2024 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
van de Vijver, I., Verhoeven, A. A. C., & de Wit, S. (2023) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01967 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
A dual-pathway architecture enables chronic stress to disrupt agency and promote habit formationPreprint
Giovanniello, J. R., Paredes, N., Wiener, A. J., Ramírez-Armenta, K., Oragwam, C., Uwadia, H. O., Yu, A. L., Lim, K. Y., Pimenta, J. S., Vilchez, G. E., et al. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.10.03.560731 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Buabang, E. K., Köster, M., Hogarth, L., & Moors, A. (2025) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-025-00651-w · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cortico‐striatal white‐matter connectivity underlies the ability to exert goal‐directed control
van Timmeren, T., van de Vijver, I., & de Wit, S. (2024) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.16456 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Cognitive computational model reveals repetition bias in a sequential decision-making task
Legler, E., Rivera, D. C., Schwöbel, S., Wagner, B., & Kiebel, S. J. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00271-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Working hard to avoid: Fixed-ratio response effort and maladaptive avoidance in humans
Dymond, S., Xia, W., Lloyd, K. R., Schlund, M. W., & Zuj, D. V. (2022) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218221127660 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The neural basis of habit formation measured in goal-directed response switching
Michiels, M., Man, V. Y., Luque, D., & Obeso, I. (2026) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.114568 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Defining and Measuring Habits Across Different Fields of Research
Watson, P. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-55889-4_1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Gera, R., Or, M. B., Tavor, I., Roll, D., Cockburn, J., Barak, S., Tricomi, E. M., O’Doherty, J. P., & Schönberg, T. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.12.520188 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationDelayed rewards weaken human goal directed actions
Perez, O. D., & Urcelay, G. P. (2025) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-025-00325-2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationAction sequence learning, habits, and automaticity in obsessive-compulsive disorder
Banca, P., Ruiz, M. H., González-Zalba, M. F., Biria, M., Marzuki, A. A., Piercy, T., Sule, A., Fineberg, N. A., & Robbins, T. W. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.87346.4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A computational model for individual differences in non-reinforced learning for individual itemsPreprint
Salomon, T., Itzkovitch, A., Daw, N. D., & Schönberg, T. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.03.20.484477 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Jiang, Y., Han, J., Xiao, M., Liu, Y., & Chen, H. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04315-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Effects of sex and estrous cycle on action-outcome contingencies
Corbett, C. M., Bozarth, S. L., & West, E. A. (2024) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2024.115317 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Neuroeconomics of HabitPreprint
Camerer, C., Landry, P., & Webb, R. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3752193 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Buabang, E. K., Boddez, Y., Wolf, O. T., & Moors, A. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/kz5ev · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Goal-Directed and Habitual Control in Human Drug Addiction
Lim, T. V., & Ersche, K. D. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-55889-4_11 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The degraded contingency test fails to detect habit induction in humans
Molinero, S., Martínez-López, P., Morís, J., Quintero, M. J., Cobos, P. L., López, F. J., & Luque, D. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0334087 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Integrating neuro-psychological habit research into consumer choice models
Webb, R., Fong, J., Landry, P., Levine, J., Wellsjo, A., Natan, O., Mazar, A., Zhao, C., Lally, P. J., de Wit, S., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2025.10.002 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationAction-sequence learning, habits and automaticity in obsessive-compulsive disorderPreprint
Banca, P., Ruiz, M. H., González-Zalba, M. F., Biria, M., Marzuki, A. A., Piercy, T., Sule, A., Fineberg, N. A., & Robbins, T. W. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.02.23.23286338 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Buabang, E. K., Köster, M., Hogarth, L., & Moors, A. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/79ykb · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Random Utility Maximisation Model Considering the Information Search ProcessPreprint
Nova, G., Guevara, C. Á., Hess, S., & Hancock, T. O. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4594683 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Jarrett, C. E., Zwosta, K., Wang, X., Wolfensteller, U., Iglesias, J. E., von Kriegstein, K., & Ruge, H. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.08.26.609333 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Historical and Modern Perspectives on the Neuroscience of Habits
Ameden, W. C., & Tricomi, E. M. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-55889-4_10 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationProgressive Changes Between Thalamic Nuclei and Cortical Networks Across Stimulus–Response Learning
Jarrett, C. E., Zwosta, K., Wang, X., Wolfensteller, U., Iglesias, J. E., von Kriegstein, K., & Ruge, H. (2025) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.70382 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Assessing the validity evidence for habit measures based on time pressure
Martínez-López, P., Vázquez-Millán, A., Garre-Frutos, F., & Luque, D. (2025) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-025-02865-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Thorndike's law of effect and its inconsistent description over the years
Domjan, M. P. (2025) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1002/jeab.70073 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Human goal-directed behavior is resistant to interventions on the action-outcome contingency
Perez, O. D., Oh, S., Dickinson, A., Arenas, J., & Merlo, E. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04115-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Rate-Correlation Theory of Goal-Directed Behavior: An Update
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Self-citationMaintained goal-directed control with overtraining on ratio schedulesPreprint
Garr, E., Padovan‐Hernandez, Y., Janak, P. H., & Delamater, A. R. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hp42x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
van Timmeren, T., Džinalija, N., O’Doherty, J. P., & de Wit, S. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.11.13.516302 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationAction-sequence learning, habits and automaticity in obsessive-compulsive disorderPreprint
Banca, P., Ruiz, M. H., González-Zalba, M. F., Biria, M., Marzuki, A. A., Piercy, T., Sule, A., Fineberg, N. A., & Robbins, T. W. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.87346.1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Henríquez-Jara, B., Guevara, C. Á., Munizaga, M. A., & Perez, O. D. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4578223 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationAction-sequence learning, habits and automaticity in obsessive-compulsive disorderPreprint
Banca, P., Ruiz, M. H., González-Zalba, M. F., Biria, M., Marzuki, A. A., Piercy, T., Sule, A., Fineberg, N. A., & Robbins, T. W. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.87346.2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Action-sequence learning, habits and automaticity in obsessive-compulsive disorderPreprint
Banca, P., Ruiz, M. H., González-Zalba, M. F., Biria, M., Marzuki, A. A., Piercy, T., Sule, A., Fineberg, N. A., & Robbins, T. W. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.87346.3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Random Utility Maximisation Model Considering the Information Search ProcessPreprint
Nova, G., Guevara, C. Á., Hess, S., & Hancock, T. O. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4608477
Stein, J., Ruge, H., Wolfensteller, U., Goschke, T., & Zwosta, K. (2025) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag.a.956
Neural dynamics of covert habit activation and control in humansPreprint
Buabang, E. K., Suddell, S. F., Grogan, J. P., Cox, A., Martin, N. S., Donegan, K. R., Rafei, P., O’Connell, R. G., & Gillan, C. M. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.11.12.687990
Johri, A., Kluen, L. M., Gera, R., Man, V. Y., Perez, O. D., Simon, J. P., Ding, W., Fransen, A., Cho, S. J., Oh, S., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.11.26.690863
Self-citationImplicit and explicit reversal of trained oculomotor movements
Michiels, M., Luque, D., & Obeso, I. (2025) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2025.108114
Probing the causal contribution of premotor and parietal cortex in habit formation and expression
Wang, X., Zwosta, K., Korb, F. M., Ruge, H., & Wolfensteller, U. (2025) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaf341
Novel devaluation methods to explore habits in humansPreprint
Michiels, M. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.01.25.701564
Enhancing Ecological Validity in Habit Research via Naturalistic Methods
Ceceli, A. O., & Tricomi, E. M. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-02925-6_11
Self-citationVázquez-Millán, A., Martínez-López, P., Romero, M. R., León, J. J., & Luque, D. (2026) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-026-03099-6
Moors, A., Buabang, E. K., Boddez, Y., & Wolf, O. T. (2022) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Avoidance habit learning after recovery from anorexia nervosa: An fMRI study
Breier, C. M., Steding, J., King, J. A., Geisler, D., Doose, A., Boehm, I., Seidel, M., Nguyen, T. A., Zwosta, K., Roessner, V., et al. (2026) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.70204
Stable Environments Produce Habitual Choice and Attentional Narrowing without FeedbackPreprint
Perez, O. D., Henríquez-Jara, B. I., & Muñoz, S. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7315221
Self-citationEffort-based decision-making:A value-based dissection and arousal-focused synthesis
Clairis, N., & Tobler, P. N. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.107062
- Authors
- Pool, E. R., Gera, R., Fransen, A., Perez, O. D., Cremer, A., Aleksic, M., Tanwisuth, S., Quail, S., Ceceli, A. O., Manfredi, D. A., Nave, G., Tricomi, E., Balleine, B., Schonberg, T., Schwabe, L., & O'Doherty, J. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Geneva (CH)
- Tel Aviv University (IL)
- California Institute of Technology (US)
- Universidad de Santiago de Chile (CL)
- Universität Hamburg (DE)
- Leiden University (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Learning & Memory
- Publisher
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
- Published
- 2021-12-15
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 16-28
- ISSN
- 1072-0502 (ISSN-L)
- 1549-5485
- PMC
- PMC8686594
- OpenAlex
- W4226353136
- Cited by
- 74
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 3 · 2018: 1
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- Learning & Memory (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CaltechAUTHORS (California Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Funders
- Early Postdoctoral Mobility
- Swiss National Science Foundation (P2GEP1162079)
- National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (GNT1079561)
- Landesforschungsförderung Hamburg (FV38)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- habit formation, goal-directed behavior, operant conditioning, training duration, affective stress, individual differences, anxiety
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Conditioning, Operant, Goals, Habits, Humans, Motivation
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