Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory: Figure 1.
Open accessAbstract
The misinformation effect refers to the impairment in memory for the past that arises after exposure to misleading information. The phenomenon has been investigated for at least 30 years, as investigators have addressed a number of issues. These include the conditions under which people are especially susceptible to the negative impact of misinformation, and conversely when are they resistant. Warnings about the potential for misinformation sometimes work to inhibit its damaging effects, but only under limited circumstances. The misinformation effect has been observed in a variety of human and nonhuman species. And some groups of individuals are more susceptible than others. At a more theoretical level, investigators have explored the fate of the original memory traces after exposure to misinformation appears to have made them inaccessible. This review of the field ends with a brief discussion of the newer work involving misinformation that has explored the processes by which people come to believe falsely that they experienced rich complex events that never, in fact, occurred.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Individuals can be relatively easily tricked into believing that fictitious events have actually taken place.
“Given that several decades of empirical research have impressively demonstrated that individuals can be relatively easily tricked into believing that fictitious events have actually taken place (cf.Loftus, 2005), the possibility to willingly fake our personal past using digital technologies offers a worrying outlook into the future.”
From Understanding Autobiographical Memory in the Digital Age: The AMEDIA-Model (2024) · cites this paper as Loftus, 2005
The memory distortion effects we observed here in some ways resemble those that occur in the postevent misinformation paradigm.
“The memory distortion effects we observed here in some ways resemble those that occur in the postevent misinformation paradigm (2), in which erroneous information presented after encoding contributes to later false memories because of source-memory confusion.”
From Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory (2013) · cites this paper as [2]
Memory is not an exact reproduction of past experiences but a constructive process subject to errors and distortions.
“Research in psychology and neuroscience supports the idea that memory is not an exact reproduction of past experiences, but is instead a constructive process subject to a variety of errors and distortions (1–8).”
From Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory (2013) · cites this paper as [2]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory
Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., & Burns, H. J. (1978) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.4.1.19 · Cited by 1,511 · see citing works
Self-citationSuggestibility of the child witness: A historical review and synthesis.
Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1993) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.113.3.403 · Cited by 1,405 · see citing works
The formation of false memories
Loftus, E. F., & Pickrell, J. E. (1995) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/0048-5713-19951201-07 · Cited by 1,125 · see citing works
Self-citationThe reality of repressed memories.
Loftus, E. F. (1993) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.48.5.518 · Cited by 960 · see citing works
Self-citationThe reality of repressed memories.
Loftus, E. F. (1993) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.48.5.518 · Cited by 901 · see citing works
Self-citationMcCloskey, M. E., & Zaragoza, M. S. (1985) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.114.1.1 · Cited by 675 · see citing works
False memories of childhood experiences
Hyman, I. E., Husband, T. H., & Billings, F. J. (1995) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2350090302 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
Misinformation and memory: The creation of new memories.
Loftus, E. F., & Hoffman, H. G. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.118.1.100 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
Self-citationMisinformation and memory: The creation of new memories.
Loftus, E. F., & Hoffman, H. G. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.118.1.100 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Self-citationSource misattributions and the suggestibility of eyewitness memory.
Zaragoza, M. S., & Lane, S. M. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.20.4.934 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
Loftus, E. F. (2003) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.58.11.867 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Self-citationPorter, S., Yuille, J. C., & Lehman, D. R. (1999) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1022344128649 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory Distortion
Schacter, D. L., & Slotnick, S. D. (2004) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.08.017 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
A theoretical review of the misinformation effect: Predictions from an activation-based memory model
Ayers, M. S., & Reder, L. M. (1998) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03209454 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Discrepancy detection and vulnerability to misleading postevent information
Tousignant, J. P., Hall, D., & Loftus, E. F. (1986) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03202511 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Self-citationMake my memory: How advertising can change our memories of the past
Braun, K. A., Ellis, R., & Loftus, E. F. (2001) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.1000 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Self-citationTrue Photographs and False Memories
Lindsay, D. S., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.01503002.x · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Source misattributions and the suggestibility of eyewitness memory.
Zaragoza, M. S., & Lane, S. M. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.934 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Influences of misleading postevent information: Misinformation interference and acceptance.
Belli, R. F. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.118.1.72 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Schmolck, H., Buffalo, E. A., & Squire, L. R. (2000) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00212 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Inducing resistance to misleading information
Greene, E., Flynn, M. S., & Loftus, E. F. (1982) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(82)90571-0 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Self-citationSchooler, J. W., Gerhard, D., & Loftus, E. F. (1986) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.12.2.171 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Self-citationPigeon visual memory capacity.
Vaughan, W., & Greene, S. L. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.10.2.256 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Effects of category length and strength on familiarity in recognition.
Shiffrin, R. M., Huber, D. E., & Marinelli, K. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.2.267 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Comparing recollective experience in true and false autobiographical memories.
Heaps, C. M., & Nash, M. R. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.27.4.920 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Brain Potentials Reflect Behavioral Differences in True and False Recognition
Curran, T., Schacter, D. L., Johnson, M. K., & Spinks, R. A. (2001) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892901564261 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Neural activity during encoding predicts false memories created by misinformationPreprint
Okado, Y., & Stark, C. E. L. (2005) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.87605 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
McNally, R. J., Lasko, N. B., Clancy, S. A., Macklin, M. L., Pitman, R. K., & Orr, S. P. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00707.x · Cited by 145 · see citing works
A reconciliation of the evidence on eyewitness testimony: Comments on McCloskey and Zaragoza.
Tversky, B., & Tuchin, M. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.118.1.86 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Comparing recollective experience in true and false autobiographical memories.
Heaps, C. M., & Nash, M. R. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.4.920 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
HOW AND WHEN ADVERTISING CAN INFLUENCE MEMORY FOR CONSUMER EXPERIENCE
Braun-LaTour, K. A., LaTour, M. S., Pickrell, J. E., Loftus, E. F., & Stanford University) is a Distinguished (2004) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2004.10639171 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Self-citationTrue But Not False Memories Produce a Sensory Signature in Human Lateralized Brain Potentials
Fabiani, M., Stadler, M. A., & Wessels, P. M. (2000) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/08989290051137486 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Schooler, J. W., Gerhard, D., & Loftus, E. F. (1986) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.12.2.171 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citationAssefi, S., & Garry, M. (2003) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.01422 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Accuracy and Qualities of Real and Suggested Memories: Nonspecific Age Differences
Karpel, M. E., Hoyer, W. J., & Toglia, M. P. (2001) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/56.2.p103 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Believing details known to have been suggested
Higham, P. A. (1998) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1998.tb02684.x · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Eakin, D. K., Schreiber, T. A., & Sergent-Marshall, S. D. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.29.5.813 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
False reports of childhood events in appropriate interviews
Ost, J., Foster, S., Costall, A. P., & Bull, R. (2004) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210444000340 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Nourkova, V. V., Bernstein, D. M., & Loftus, E. F. (2004) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930341000455 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationImmediate and persisting effects of misleading questions and hypnosis on memory reports
Scoboria, A., Mazzoni, G., Kirsch, I., & Milling, L. S. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.8.1.26 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Misleading postevent information: Testing parameterized models of integration in memory
Wagenaar, W. A., & Boer, J. P. A. (1987) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/0001-6918(87)90040-0 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Imagery perspective and source monitoring in imagination inflation
Libby, L. K. (2003) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196128 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Infants' eyewitness testimony: Effects of postevent information on a prior memory representation
Rovee‐Collier, C., Borza, M. A., Adler, S. A., & Boller, K. (1993) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03202738 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Event memory and misinformation effects in a gorilla ( Gorilla gorilla gorilla )
Schwartz, B. L., Meissner, C. A., Hoffman, M. L., Evans, S. X. E. N., & Frazier, L. D. (2004) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-003-0194-7 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Memory Distortion and Dissociation: Exploring the Relationship in a Non-Clinical Sample
Wright, D. B., & Livingston-Raper, D. (2002) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1300/j229v03n03_06 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Searching for the neurobiology of the misinformation effect: Figure 1.Preprint
Loftus, E. F. (2005) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.90805 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationPostevent cues bias recognition performance in pigeons
Harper, D. N., & Garry, M. (2000) · Animal Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/bf03199772 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Client Satisfaction Survey of Inpatient Trauma and Dissociative Disorders Program
Dougherty, M. J. (2002) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1300/j229v03n02_06 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Elizabeth F. Loftus: Award for Distinguished Scientific Applications of Psychology.
(2003) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.58.11.864 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Event memory and misinformation effects in a gorilla
Schwartz, B. L., Meissner, C. A., Hoffman, M. L., et al. (2004) · Animal Cognition · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Ost, J., Foster, S., Costall, A., and Bull, R. 2005. False reports in appropriate interviews. Memory (in press).
- M.L. Commons, A.R. Wagner, and R.J. Herrnstein), Vol. 4, Discrimination processes. Ballinger, Cambridge, MA.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Misinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and Successful Debiasing
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612451018 · Cited by 2,920 · see citing works
Baldwin, J. R., Reuben, A., Newbury, J. B., & Danese, A. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0097 · Cited by 1,094 · see citing works
Science audiences, misinformation, and fake news
Scheufele, D. A., & Krause, N. M. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1805871115 · Cited by 878 · see citing works
Diamond, D. M., Campbell, A. M., Park, C. R., Halonen, J., & Zoladz, P. R. (2007) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2007/60803 · Cited by 762 · see citing works
“The subsequent suppression of the induction of new plasticity from being generated in phase 2 would reduce, but perhaps not completely block, the corruption of the memory of phase 1 events by later occurring events (Laney and Loftus [93]; Loftus [303]).”
BackgroundInfluentialAdaptive constructive processes and the future of memory
Schacter, D. L. (2012) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0029869 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Are episodic memories special? On the sameness of remembered and imagined event simulation
Addis, D. R. (2018) · Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand · doi:10.1080/03036758.2018.1439071 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Memory and law: what can cognitive neuroscience contribute?
Schacter, D. L., & Loftus, E. F. (2013) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.3294 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Self-citationThe neuroscience of memory: implications for the courtroom
Lacy, J. W., & Stark, C. E. L. (2013) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3563 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Human memory reconsolidation can be explained using the temporal context model
Sederberg, P. B., Gershman, S. J., Polyn, S. M., & Norman, K. A. (2011) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0086-9 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
St. Jacques, P. L., & Schacter, D. L. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612457377 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Flexible retrieval: When true inferences produce false memories.
Carpenter, A. C., & Schacter, D. L. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000340 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory
St. Jacques, P. L., Olm, C., & Schacter, D. L. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1319630110 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Individual differences in long-term memory.
Unsworth, N. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000176 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Straube, B. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/1744-9081-8-35 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Changes in trauma memory and patterns of posttraumatic stress
Dekel, S., & Bonanno, G. A. (2013) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/a0022750 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Kloft, L., Monds, L. A., Blokland, A., Ramaekers, J. G., & Otgaar, H. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.012 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“This phenomenon is called the misinformation effect (for a review see Loftus, 2005).”
BackgroundMemory Manipulations in Extended Reality
Bonnail, E., Tseng, W.-J., Mcgill, M., Lecolinet, E., Huron, S., & Gugenheimer, J. (2023) · Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3580988 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
From remembering to reconstruction: The transformative neural representation of episodic memory.
Xue, G. (2022) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2022.102351 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
The impact of sleep on true and false memory across long delays
Pardilla-Delgado, E., & Payne, J. D. (2017) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2016.11.016 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Emotion and false memory: how goal-irrelevance can be relevant for what people remember
Van Damme, I., Kaplan, R. L., Levine, L. J., & Loftus, E. F. (2017) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1150489 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationTayal, P., & Bharathi. S, V. (2021) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2020.1825254 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Stone, C. B., Luminet, O., & Hirst, W. (2013) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.06.019 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Understanding Autobiographical Memory in the Digital Age: The AMEDIA-Model
Hutmacher, F., Appel, M., & Schwan, S. (2024) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2024.2384125 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Schincariol, A., Otgaar, H., Greene, C. M., Murphy, G., Riesthuis, P., Mangiulli, I., & Battista, F. (2024) · Memory, Mind & Media · doi:10.1017/mem.2024.14 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Six reasons to study emotional support from conversational artificial intelligence
Karnaze, M. M., & Bloss, C. S. (2026) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-026-02412-9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
- Authors
- Loftus, E. F.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Loftus, Elizabeth F.
- ORCID
- Loftus, Elizabeth F.
- Venue
- Learning & Memory
- Publisher
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
- Published
- 2005-07
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 361-366
- ISSN
- 1072-0502 (ISSN-L)
- 1549-5485
- OpenAlex
- W2073166664
- Cited by
- 1,297
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 68 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 66 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 89 · 2019: 92 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 74 · 2016: 71 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 47 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 48
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Learning & Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
- Keywords
- misinformation effect, memory malleability, false memory, misleading information, memory distortion, misinformation resistance, non-human species, memory traces
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Humans, Memory, Repression, Psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
