Adaptive constructive processes and the future of memory
Open accessAbstract
Memory serves critical functions in everyday life but is also prone to error. This article examines adaptive constructive processes, which play a functional role in memory and cognition but can also produce distortions, errors, and illusions. The article describes several types of memory errors that are produced by adaptive constructive processes and focuses in particular on the process of imagining or simulating events that might occur in one's personal future. Simulating future events relies on many of the same cognitive and neural processes as remembering past events, which may help to explain why imagination and memory can be easily confused. The article considers both pitfalls and adaptive aspects of future event simulation in the context of research on planning, prediction, problem solving, mind-wandering, prospective and retrospective memory, coping and positivity bias, and the interconnected set of brain regions known as the default network.
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Early laboratory and clinical studies provided initial evidence that episodic future thinking serves functions including decision making, emotion regulation, intention formation, and planning.
“Early laboratory and clinical studies provided initial evidence that they serve a range of functions, including decision making, emotion regulation, intention formation, and planning (67)”
From Episodic Future Thinking: Mechanisms and Functions (2017) · cites this paper as [67]
The sections on goal-directed cognition, psychological well-being, and prospective memory report evidence for decision making, planning, coping with stress, and carrying out intended actions (page numbers unavailable). They do not show that future thinking helps form intentions: the implementation-intentions passage describes linking an existing intention to a future situation. (LLM, conf=0.83)
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- Bartlett FC Remembering 1932 Cambridge Cambridge University Press
- McClelland JL Schacter DL Constructive memory and memory distortions: A parallel-distributed processing approach Memory distortion: How minds, brains and societies reconstruct the past 1995 Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press 69 90
- Roediger HL III Memory illusions Journal of Memory and Language 1996 35 76 100
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Sorted by citations
The future of memory: remembering, imagining, and the brain
Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., Hassabis, D., Martin, V. C., Spreng, R. N., & Szpunar, K. K. (2012) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.11.001 · Cited by 1,398 · see citing works
Self-citationEpisodic Future Thinking: Mechanisms and Functions
Schacter, D. L., Benoit, R. G., & Szpunar, K. K. (2017) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.06.002 · Cited by 771 · see citing works
“Early laboratory and clinical studies provided initial evidence that they serve a range of functions, including decision making, emotion regulation, intention formation, and planning [67], and recent work has both strengthened and broadened this evidence.”
BackgroundSelf-citationA taxonomy of prospection: Introducing an organizational framework for future-oriented cognition
Szpunar, K. K., Spreng, R. N., & Schacter, D. L. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1417144111 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Self-citationThe hippocampus and related neocortical structures in memory transformation
Sekeres, M. J., Winocur, G., & Moscovitch, M. (2018) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2018.05.006 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
The effects of psychological distance on abstraction: Two meta-analyses.
Soderberg, C. K., Callahan, S. P., Kochersberger, A. O., Amit, E., & Ledgerwood, A. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000005 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Imagine all the people: how the brain creates and uses personality models to predict behavior
Hassabis, D., Spreng, R. N., Rusu, A. A., Robbins, C. A., Mar, R. A., & Schacter, D. L. (2014) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bht042 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Self-citationRobin, J., & Moscovitch, M. (2017) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.07.016 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Benoit, R. G., Szpunar, K. K., & Schacter, D. L. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1419274111 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Self-citationDeconstructing the Posterior Medial Episodic Network
Ritchey, M., & Cooper, R. A. (2020) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2020.03.006 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Jing, H. G., Madore, K. P., & Schacter, D. L. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000142 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Self-citationMadore, K. P., Gaesser, B., & Schacter, D. L. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0034885 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Self-citationSchacter, D. L., Benoit, R. G., De Brigard, F., & Szpunar, K. K. (2015) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2013.12.008 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Self-citationKonishi, M., McLaren, D. G., Engen, H., & Smallwood, J. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132209 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Schacter, D. L., & Madore, K. P. (2016) · Memory Studies · doi:10.1177/1750698016645230 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Self-citationSzpunar, K. K., & Schacter, D. L. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0028877 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationThe evolution of stories: from mimesis to language, from fact to fiction
Boyd, B. (2017) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1444 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Episodic simulation and episodic memory can increase intentions to help others
Gaesser, B., & Schacter, D. L. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1402461111 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citationStawarczyk, D., & D'Argembeau, A. (2015) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22818 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Goal Commitments and the content of thoughts and dreams: basic principles
Klinger, E. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00415 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
The Cultural Foundation of Human Memory
Wang, Q. (2020) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-070920-023638 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Remembering the past and imagining the future in the elderly
Schacter, D. L., Gaesser, B., & Addis, D. R. (2013) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000342198 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Self-citationGerlach, K. D., Spreng, R. N., Madore, K. P., & Schacter, D. L. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsu001 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Self-citationAn episodic specificity induction enhances means-end problem solving in young and older adults.
Madore, K. P., & Schacter, D. L. (2014) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0038209 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Self-citationTransformed Neural Pattern Reinstatement during Episodic Memory Retrieval
Xiao, X., Dong, Q., Gao, J., Men, W., Poldrack, R. A., & Xue, G. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2324-16.2017 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Abraham, A. (2016) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23300 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
St. Jacques, P. L., & Schacter, D. L. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612457377 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Self-citationTranscranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) – Application in neuropsychology
Shin, Y., Foerster, Á., & Nitsche, M. A. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.002 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Klein, S. B. (2014) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1333 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Flexible retrieval: When true inferences produce false memories.
Carpenter, A. C., & Schacter, D. L. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000340 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citationThe spatial scaffold: The effects of spatial context on memory for events.
Robin, J., Wynn, J. S., & Moscovitch, M. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000167 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
The seven sins of memory: an update
Schacter, D. L. (2021) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2021.1873391 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citationKvavilashvili, L., & Rummel, J. (2020) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1177/1089268020918843 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
A Neurocognitive Perspective on the Forms and Functions of Autobiographical Memory Retrieval
Sheldon, S., Fenerci, C., & Gurguryan, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2019.00004 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Episodic future thinking in generalized anxiety disorder
Wu, J. Q., Szpunar, K. K., Godovich, S. A., Schacter, D. L., & Hofmann, S. G. (2015) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.09.005 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationThe temporal orientation of memory: It's time for a change of direction.
Klein, S. B. (2013) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2013.08.001 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory
St. Jacques, P. L., Olm, C., & Schacter, D. L. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1319630110 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationEcomindsponge: A Novel Perspective on Human Psychology and Behavior in the Ecosystem
Nguyen, M., Le, T.-T., & Vuong, Q. (2023) · Urban Science · doi:10.3390/urbansci7010031 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Cascio, C. N., O’Donnell, M. B., Tinney, F. J., Lieberman, M. D., Taylor, S. E., Strecher, V. J., & Falk, E. B. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsv136 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Moral imagination: Facilitating prosocial decision-making through scene imagery and theory of mind
Gaesser, B., Keeler, K., & Young, L. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2017.11.004 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Remembering the self in cultural contexts: A cultural dynamic theory of autobiographical memory
Wang, Q. (2016) · Memory Studies · doi:10.1177/1750698016645238 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Schmidt, T. T., Ostwald, D., & Blankenburg, F. (2014) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.05.014 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Cole, S. N., & Berntsen, D. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1044542 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Memory and Imagination: Perspectives on Constructive Episodic Simulation
Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2020) · The Cambridge Handbook of the Imagination · doi:10.1017/9781108580298.008 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationCore Network Contributions to Remembering the Past, Imagining the Future, and Thinking Creatively
Beaty, R. E., Thakral, P. P., Madore, K. P., Benedek, M., & Schacter, D. L. (2018) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01327 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationSpatial scaffold effects in event memory and imagination
Robin, J. (2018) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1462 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Repetition-related reductions in neural activity reveal component processes of mental simulation
Szpunar, K. K., St. Jacques, P. L., Robbins, C. A., Wig, G. S., & Schacter, D. L. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst035 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationHow imagining personal future scenarios influences affect: Systematic review and meta-analysis
Schubert, T., Eloo, R., Scharfen, J., & Nexhmedin Morina, B. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101811 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Memories of the Future: New Insights into the Adaptive Value of Episodic Memory
Szpunar, K. K., Addis, D. R., McLelland, V. C., & Schacter, D. L. (2013) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00047 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationHuys, Q. J. M., Guitart‐Masip, M., Dolan, R. J., & Dayan, P. (2015) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702614562040 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Gaesser, B., Spreng, R. N., McLelland, V. C., Addis, D. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2013) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.22152 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationJing, H. G., Madore, K. P., & Schacter, D. L. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2017.08.010 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationInducing involuntary and voluntary mental time travel using a laboratory paradigm
Cole, S. N., Staugaard, S. R., & Berntsen, D. (2015) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-015-0564-9 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Resting state electrical brain activity and connectivity in fibromyalgia
Vanneste, S., Ost, J., Havenbergh, T. V., & Ridder, D. D. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0178516 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Feldman, D. B., Davidson, O. B., & Margalit, M. (2014) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-014-9508-5 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Active and developing patterns:Remembering into the future
Valsiner, J. (2017) · VBN Forskningsportal (Aalborg Universitet) · doi:10.1017/9780511920219 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Collective mental time travel: remembering the past and imagining the future together
Michaelian, K., & Sutton, J. D. (2017) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-017-1449-1 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Spontaneous and deliberate future thinking: a dual process account
Cole, S. N., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2019) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-019-01262-7 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Constructing Memory, Imagination, and Empathy: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective
Gaesser, B. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00576 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Remembering and imagining alternative versions of the personal past
Jacques, P. L. S., Carpenter, A. C., Szpunar, K. K., & Schacter, D. L. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.06.015 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationMoscovitch, M., & Gilboa, A. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/yxbrs · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Does episodic future thinking improve prospective remembering?
Neroni, M. A., Gamboz, N., & Brandimonte, M. A. (2014) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2013.12.001 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Reprint of: Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) – Application in neuropsychology
Shin, Y., Foerster, Á., & Nitsche, M. A. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.06.021 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
An fMRI investigation of the relationship between future imagination and cognitive flexibility
Roberts, R. P., Wiebels, K., Sumner, R. L., van Mulukom, V., Grady, C. L., Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.11.019 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationBeaty, R. E., Seli, P., & Schacter, D. L. (2018) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-018-1075-7 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationMental simulation of routes during navigation involves adaptive temporal compression
Arnold, A. E. G. F., Iaria, G., & Ekstrom, A. D. (2016) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.08.009 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Predicting the past, remembering the future
Gershman, S. J. (2017) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.025 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
How to optimize knowledge construction in the brain
van Kesteren, M. T. R., & Meeter, M. (2020) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-020-0064-y · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Sameness and the self: philosophical and psychological considerations
Klein, S. B. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00029 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Autonoesis and Belief in a Personal Past: An Evolutionary Theory of Episodic Memory Indices
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Current theories of prospective memory and new directions for theory development
Rummel, J., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00121-4 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Escaping the Past: Contributions of the Hippocampus to Future Thinking and Imagination
Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., & Szpunar, K. K. (2017) · The Hippocampus from Cells to Systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50406-3_14 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationFunctional Connectome of the Five-Factor Model of Personality
Toschi, N., Riccelli, R., Indovina, I., Terracciano, A., & Passamonti, L. (2018) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2017.2 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Madore, K. P., Jing, H. G., & Schacter, D. L. (2018) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2018.1502322 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationContribution of past and future self-defining event networks to personal identity
Demblon, J., & D’Argembeau, A. (2016) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1205095 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Make it real: Belief in occurrence within episodic future thought
Ernst, A., & D’Argembeau, A. (2017) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-017-0714-3 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Voss, A. T., Jorgensen, M. K., & Murphy, J. G. (2021) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000451 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The Futures We Want: How Goal-Directed Imagination Relates to Mental Health
Gamble, B., Tippett, L. J., Moreau, D., & Addis, D. R. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702620986096 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The role of personal goals in autonoetic experience when imagining future events
Lehner, E., & D’Argembeau, A. (2016) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2016.04.002 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Hill, P. F., Yi, R., Spreng, R. N., & Diana, R. A. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.08.071 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Carpenter, A. C., & Schacter, D. L. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000391 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationAbsence of age effects on spontaneous past and future thinking in daily life
Warden, E. A., Plimpton, B., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2018) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-018-1103-7 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Neural correlates of the Dunning-Kruger effect
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Enhancing memory and imagination improves problem solving among individuals with depression
McFarland, C. P., Primosch, M., Maxson, C., & Stewart, B. T. (2017) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-017-0706-3 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
The end into the beginning: Prolepsis and the reconstruction of the collective past
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Autobiographical memory retrieval and appraisal in social anxiety disorder
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People’s conditional probability judgments follow probability theory (plus noise)
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Affective recommender systems in the educational field. A systematic literature review
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What makes memory constructive? A study in the serial reproduction of Bartlett’s experiments
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The Hippocampus and Social Cognition
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Retrieval orientation alters neural activity during autobiographical memory recollection
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- Authors
- Schacter, D. L.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- ORCID
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2012
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 603-613
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- PMC
- PMC3815569
- OpenAlex
- W2055900812
- Cited by
- 417
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 12.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health
- National Institute on Aging
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Keywords
- memory errors, memory distortion, memory illusions, imagination, prospective memory, retrospective memory, mind wandering, prediction, planning, problem solving, coping, positivity bias, default mode network
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Physiological, Cognition, Humans, Imagination, Memory
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