Sensing Technologies for Crowd Management, Adaptation, and Information Dissemination in Public Transportation Systems: A Review

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some measures, such as increasing public transport service frequency or adding extraordinary trips, are viewed by public transport companies as effective but not sustainable long term because of limited drivers and vehicles and higher operational costs.

“Some of these measures, such as increasing PT service frequency or introducing extraordinary trips to compensate for the reduced vehicle capacity, are seen by PT companies as effective, but not sustainable in the long term, due to the limited number of drivers and vehicles and the increased operational costs [51].”

• cites [51] Coppola, 2020, Evolution of mobility sector during and beyond Covid-19 emergency: A viewpoint of industry consultancies and public transport companies, J. Land Use, Mobility Environ. sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Using London underground and overground data, the support vector machine approach performed better than other machine-learning algorithms for classifying age group travelers and achieved accuracy above 80%.

“Using a dataset of the London underground and overground network, different ML algorithms are compared in [55] to properly classify different age group travelers, showing that the support vector machine (SVM) approach performs better to predict the mobility of travelers and achieves high accuracy (more than 80%).”

• cites [55] sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A lack of passenger arrival information, particularly in real time, restricts the accuracy of studies.

“it is observed in [6] that lack of passenger arrival information, especially in real time, is a limiting factor for accurate studies.”

• cites [6] sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.2.1 (Optimal timetabling; page unavailable) says that lack of passenger arrival information has limited timetabling studies. It does not specifically say that the lack is especially acute in real time, or extend that finding to studies generally. Section 3.2.4 discusses the benefits of real-time passenger demand data for control models, but does not make those additional claims. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

During the acute phase of the COVID-19 outbreak, severe measures were adopted to reduce contagion risk, including back-door boarding, cashless operations, frequent sanitization, social distancing, capacity limits, and face masks.

“During the acute phase of the outbreak, severe anti-COVID-19 measures were adopted [48] to minimize the contagion risk, such as back-door boarding, cashless operations, frequent sanitization of vehicles and stations, enforcing social distances, limiting the service capacity, and requiring the passengers to wear face masks.”

• cites [48] sourcePartly supported

  The Financial Adversity section reports that rear-door boarding was implemented in several cities, and Hygiene, Sanitization, and Ventilation says vehicle and station sanitization was widely adopted. The Introduction describes capacity limits and compulsory masks in some countries, but also notes that distancing rules varied. The copy does not establish that cashless operations were adopted as an anti-COVID measure; its fare-payment discussion instead raises the need for alternative payment methods. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Asad et al. proposed a machine-learning approach to trace daily train travelers in age cohorts of 16-59 and over 60 in order to recommend safe travel times and routes.

“Asad et al. [55] proposed to use a machinelearning-(ML)-based approach to trace daily train travelers in different age cohorts of 16-59 years (i.e., the less vulnerable age group) and over 60 (i.e., the more vulnerable age group) in order to recommend certain times and routes for safe traveling.”

• cites [55] sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This favors emerging reflected-power NVB techniques, called passive NVB, which reuse existing over-the-air signals to count people or estimate flow by treating the signals as power carriers rather than information carriers.

“This pushes toward emerging NVB techniques using reflected-power approaches [164], also referred to as passive NVB solutions, which reuse existing over-the-air signals to count people or estimate their flow, by viewing the signals as power carriers rather than information ones.”

• cites [164] sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (p. 1) says passive radar reuses existing communication signals to detect and track targets, and the Conclusion (p. 15) reports estimating the number of targets and their speeds during indoor human movement. The paper does not establish people-flow estimation or describe its approach as treating signals as power carriers rather than information carriers. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

For Wi-Fi networks, MAC address randomization is a viable solution and is available in operating systems such as iOS, Android and Windows.

“In the case of Wi-Fi networks, a viable solution is represented by MAC address randomization [162], which is an available option in different operating systems, such as iOS, Android, and Windows.”

• cites [162] sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.2 (p. 3) describes Wi-Fi MAC address randomization as a privacy measure available on Android and iOS, and §5.3 (p. 11) discusses its implementation in Windows 10. But calling it a viable solution without qualification overstates the paper: the Conclusions (p. 17) say existing randomization policies are not effective at eliminating privacy concerns. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Crowd management systems are made up of crowd analysis or monitoring and crowd control components.

“Crowd management systems are composed [24] by crowd analysis/monitoring and crowd control components: the former includes a network of physical sensors aimed at detecting crowds and estimating their parameters, whereas the latter includes prediction, decision-making, and control strategies aimed at managing the crowd events.”

• cites [24] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Emergency measures that limit public transport service capacity during COVID-19 are generally not sustainable in the long term because they shift a significant share of passengers to private transportation.

“These measures are generally not sustainable in the long term since they shift a significant portion of passengers to private transportation.”

May combine two claims.

A recent special issue focuses on sensing technologies for private transportation and gives less attention to integrating sensing technologies within public transport systems; crowd monitoring sensing techniques are not specifically discussed there.

“The main focus of the contributions in [26] is on sensing technologies for private transportation systems, oriented to autonomous driving [27], [28], intelligent fault detection [29], [30], electric charging optimization [31], road condition monitoring [32], [33], precise fleet management [34], and speed detection and accident avoidance [35], [36]: in the same issue, less attention is dedicated to”

• cites [26] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A 2020 survey in China estimated that as a result of the COVID-19 outbreak private car use would roughly double from 34% to 66%, while public transport use would more than halve from 56% to 24%.

“A survey [44] carried out in China in 2020 estimated that, as a consequence of the outbreak, the use of private cars will be roughly doubled, increasing from 34% to 66%, whereas the use of public transport (buses/metros) will be more than halved, dropping down from 56% to 24%.”

• cites [44] 2020Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Real-time passenger demand data can substantially improve the performance of control models when overcrowding occurs.

“it is stated in [18] that “the availability of real-time passenger demand data can significantly improve the performance of control models in the case of overcrowding.””

• cites [18] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The new crowd management functionalities have two main purposes: improving passenger quality of service and experience to encourage public transport use, and enabling safe public transport use during exceptional events such as COVID-19.

“The new crowd management functionalities essentially achieve two scopes: 1) to improve the QoS/QoE of passengers, thereby fostering PT system usage and 2) to allow for safe PT usage during exceptional events like a pandemic outbreak, such as COVID-19.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The innovative crowd management functionalities enabled by ICT and IoT sensing technologies can be incrementally implemented as an add-on to existing state-of-the-art intelligent transportation system platforms already used by major public transport companies in urban areas.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In the new framework, additional services such as online ticketing, vehicle access control and reservation in severely crowded situations, and evolved crowd-aware route planning can be delivered to passengers.

May combine two claims.

Excluding SAR-based techniques, device-free RF sensing is a moderate-complexity crowd analysis technique with low installation costs.

“In summary, excluding SAR-based techniques, devicefree RF sensing is a moderate-complexity crowd analysis technique with low installation costs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Compared to Wi-Fi-based sensing, Bluetooth devices are cheaper, less power-hungry, and are characterized by increased flexibility and simplified installation.

“Compared to Wi-Fi-based sensing (discussed later), Bluetooth devices are cheaper, less power-hungry, and are characterized by increased flexibility and simplified installation.”

May combine two claims.

Real-time crowd control techniques are less explored, mainly because fine-grained crowding data are not sufficiently available.

“Real-time crowd control techniques are less explored, mainly due to the lack of availability of fine-grained crowding data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Optical cameras are widely used in private and public spaces for surveillance and security, such as CCTV, and are routinely installed inside PT vehicles and stations.

“Optical cameras are widely used in private and public spaces for surveillance and security, such as in closed circuit television (CCTV) systems, and are routinely installed inside PT vehicles and stations to this aim.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Optical cameras are widely used in private and public spaces for surveillance and security.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Management of optical camera-based systems might be cumbersome due to privacy-related restrictions.

“Finally, the management of optical camera-based systems might be cumbersome, due to privacy-related restrictions.”

May combine two claims.

The integration of ICT and IoT sensing technologies into public transport systems for crowd management is fragmentary, and their potential is not fully exploited at present.

“From the previous discussion, it is apparent that the integration of ICT/IoT sensing technologies into PT systems for crowd management is fragmentary and their potentials are not fully exploited to date.”

May combine two claims.

Compared to traditional VB approaches, LiDAR is less sensitive to varying lighting conditions and requires, in general, lower data-processing times.

“Compared to traditional VB approaches, LiDAR is less sensitive to varying lighting conditions and requires, in general, lower data-processing times.”

May combine two claims.

People counters based on thermal cameras are less sensitive to the level of ambient lighting or background color contrasts than optical cameras, but their performance can be adversely affected by heat sources and weather conditions.

“Different from optical cameras, people counters based on thermal cameras are less sensitive to the level of ambient lighting or background color contrasts, but their performance can be adversely affected by heat sources and weather conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

RFID and NFC devices are typically not tamper-resistant, so an adversary can capture them and expose their secret parameters.

“Since RFID and NFC devices are typically not tamper-resistant, an adversary can capture them and expose their secret parameters.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: RFID and NFC devices are typically not tamper-resistant.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Device-aided solutions are commonly used to gather different types of information for many different purposes and applications because modern smartphones are ubiquitous and equipped with several sensors and multiple RF interfaces.

“Since modern smartphones are ubiquitous and, moreover, are equipped with several sensors and multiple RF interfaces, device-aided solutions are commonly used to gather different types of information for many different purposes and applications (see [90] for a recent review).”

• cites [90] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Modern smartphones are ubiquitous and equipped with several sensors and multiple RF interfaces.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Crowd analysis techniques based on images require high computing power.

“Moreover, crowd analysis techniques based on images require a high computing power.”

May combine two claims.

The system in [19] and [21] was able to detect only around 20% of the passengers in a real setting since several users may have turned off the Wi-Fi interface.

“The system in [19] and [21] was able to detect only around 20% of the passengers in a real setting since several users may have turned off the Wi-Fi interface.”

• cites [19] Handte, Crowd density estimation for public transport vehiclesNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [21] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Thermal imaging cameras are currently used in some countries to prevent accidents and infrastructure damage in PT systems, detecting, for example, people walking on the tracks or fire events.

“Thermal imaging cameras are currently used in some countries to prevent accidents and infrastructure damage in PT systems, detecting, for example, people walking on the tracks or fire events.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In device-aided approaches for crowd analysis, users are expected to carry RF devices, which must be switched ON to enable people counting.

“In device-aided approaches for crowd analysis, users are expected to carry RF devices, which must be switched ON to enable people counting.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Users are expected to carry RF devices that must be switched ON to enable people counting.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Real-time image processing for thermal cameras can be computationally intensive.

“In addition, realtime image processing can be computationally intensive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Bluetooth is a consolidated short-range RF technology, supported by almost all smartphones on the market.

“Bluetooth is a consolidated short-range RF technology, supported by almost all smartphones on the market: crowd monitoring algorithms using Bluetooth have been proposed in several papers (see, e.g., [145] and references therein).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Bluetooth is supported by almost all smartphones on the market.

May combine two claims.

People counting using RF signals can be used in dimly lit places and in smoky and dusty environments; hence, it represents an interesting solution for metro/subway stations and/or at bus/tram stops.

“People counting using RF signals can be used in dimly lit places and in smoky and dusty environments: hence, it represents an interesting solution for metro/subway stations and/or at bus/tram stops.”

May combine two claims.

WIM systems represent a convenient solution to measure crowdedness inside vehicles, even though it can be difficult to infer the actual number of passengers boarding or alighting.

“WIM systems represent a convenient solution to measure crowdedness inside vehicles, even though it can be difficult to infer the actual number of passengers boarding or alighting [4].”

• cites [4] Pinna, 2010, Automatic passenger counting and vehicle load monitoring, Ingegneria FerroviariaNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The high costs of instrumentation still limit the widespread use of thermography for crowd monitoring.

“The high costs of instrumentation still limit the widespread use of thermography for crowd monitoring.”

May combine two claims.

Pressure-sensitive switch solutions are simple, accurate (above 95%), and rugged, ensuring long operational life.

“These solutions are simple, accurate (above 95%), and rugged, ensuring long operational life: installation of multiple treadle mats over different steps allows one to discriminate between infeed/outfeed motion [4].”

• cites [4] Pinna, 2010, Automatic passenger counting and vehicle load monitoring, Ingegneria FerroviariaNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Operator-based crowd control in public transport systems remains at an early stage of development.

“operator-based crowd control in PT systems is still at an early stage of development.”

May combine two claims.

Underestimation of the number of passengers is a common problem for Wi-Fi-based techniques, which can be compensated by proper calibration of the procedure in each scenario of interest.

“Underestimation of the number of passengers is a common problem for these techniques, which can be compensated by proper calibration of the procedure in each scenario of interest.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In a simplified model of the Kraków public transport system, real-time crowding information dissemination contributed to a more efficient distribution of passenger loads, improved travel comfort, and reduced waiting time by about 30%.

“the new methodology is tested on a simplified model of the urban PT system of Kraków, Poland, showing that RTCI dissemination contributes to a more efficient distribution of passenger loads in the PT network, improving travel comfort and reducing waiting time by about 30%.”

• cites [17] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

RF signals can penetrate obstacles to a certain extent and are not affected by weather/illumination.

“Moreover, RF signals can penetrate obstacles to a certain extent and are not affected by weather/illumination.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: RF signals can penetrate obstacles to a certain extent and are not affected by weather/illumination.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Device-free crowd analysis based on RF signals is an emerging technique that does not require installation of expensive cameras nor does it suffer from privacy-related concerns.

“Device-free crowd analysis based on RF signals is an emerging technique, which does not require installation of expensive cameras nor does it suffer from privacy-related concerns.”

May combine two claims.

Counting latency in acoustic-based crowd counting can significantly grow as the number of devices increases; as a consequence, this technique may be appropriate only for low-density scenarios.

“Effectiveness is proven through several experiments at bus stops or aboard, which show, however, that counting latency can significantly grow as the number of devices increases; as a consequence, this technique may be appropriate only for low-density scenarios.”

• cites [124] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A moderate accuracy (around 80% for RSSI-based techniques, up to 90% and larger for CSI-based ones) can be expected in simple scenarios, but it is questionable whether this approach can be scalable to large crowds, especially in complex propagation scenarios.

“A moderate accuracy (around 80% for RSSI-based techniques, up to 90% and larger for CSIbased ones) can be expected in simple scenarios, but it is questionable whether this approach can be scalable to large crowds, especially in complex propagation scenarios [90].”

• cites [90] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Crowd analysis based on optical sensors is versatile and powerful but has several limitations: camera sensors are expensive, each camera can only cover a small area, resulting in high deployment costs in complex and/or large environments.

“In summary, crowd analysis based on optical sensors is versatile and powerful but has several limitations: camera sensors, indeed, are expensive, and each camera can only cover a small area, resulting in high deployment costs in complex and/or large environments.”

May combine two claims.

RFID and NFC technologies are used in traditional and emerging AFC systems for electronic ticketing, such as MIFARE contactless cards or mobile-based payment systems, which can also be employed for passenger counting.

“Finally, it should be observed that RFID and NFC technologies are used in traditional and emerging AFC systems for electronic ticketing, such as MIFARE contactless cards or mobile-based payment systems [144], which can also be employed for passenger counting.”

• cites [144] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Land Transport Authority of Singapore used AFC data to identify commuter hotspots, enabling better management of bus fleets and demand, with a 92% reduction in bus services having crowding issues and a 3-7 minute reduction in average waiting time on popular bus services.

“Well before the COVID-19 outbreak, the LTA in Singapore has been collecting AFC data [62] to help identify commuter hotspots, which enables them to better manage bus fleets and commuter demand, achieving remarkable service improvements, such as 92% reduction in the number of bus services with crowding issues and 3-7-min reduction in the average waiting time on popular bus services [63].”

• cites [62] 2019Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [63] 2014Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In a rich scattering environment, crowd analysis approaches based on CSI provide more reliable people counting but are considerably more complex.

“On the other hand, in a rich scattering environment, crowd analysis approaches based on CSI provide more reliable people counting but are considerably more complex.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Camera-based solutions can be applied in all transportation scenarios, both indoor and outdoor.

“Camera-based solutions can be applied in all transportation scenarios, both indoor and outdoor ones.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

RFID-based solutions require that passengers carry passive RFID tags, whose presence can be detected by a reader.

“RFID-based solutions require that the passengers carry passive RFID tags, whose presence can be detected by a reader.”

May combine two claims.

LiDAR-based counting systems are suitable for all transportation scenarios, both indoor and outdoor.

“Due to these features, LiDARbased counting systems are suitable for all transportation scenarios, both indoor and outdoor.”

May combine two claims.

Counting algorithms based on device-free RF usually require a site-specific training phase, which complicates practical installation and maintenance.

“Moreover, counting algorithms based on this approach usually require a site-specific training phase, which complicates practical installation and maintenance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Installation of IR sensors could be expensive because typically more than one barrier per door is needed to detect passenger flow.

“Moreover, installation could be expensive since, typically, more than one barrier per door is needed to detect the passenger flow.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The main advantage of Wi-Fi-based techniques is that they allow tracking passengers also when they alight the bus, allowing estimation of O-D flows.

“The main advantage of Wi-Fi-based techniques is that they allow to track passengers also when they alight the bus, allowing to estimate O-D flows.”

May combine two claims.

The proposed architecture relies on many heterogeneous sensors and devices that must be inexpensive, low-energy and sometimes small in form factor.

“The proposed architecture, indeed, is based on a plethora of heterogeneous sensors and devices, which are required to be inexpensive, low energy, and, in some cases, have small form factor.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wi-Fi-based counting can also be employed in metro/railway stations since access points are typically available in such scenarios.

“Wi-Fi-based counting can also be employed in metro/railway stations since access points are typically available in such scenarios.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Privacy is one of the main issues for sensing technologies used in crowd management.

“Privacy is one of the major issues related to sensing technologies for crowd management.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The number of passengers can also be estimated by the number of validated/issued tickets, as in AFC systems, which, however, requires user cooperation and can provide underestimated results in the case of diffuse fare evasion.

“The number of passengers can also be estimated by the number of validated/issued tickets, as in AFC systems, which, however, requires user cooperation and can provide underestimated results in the case of diffuse fare evasion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Cellular signals could be available in areas where Wi-Fi coverage is not present, such as bus/tram stops, remote, and small railways/metro stations.

“Cellular signals could be available in areas where Wi-Fi coverage is not present, such as bus/tram stops, remote, and small railways/metro stations.”

May combine two claims.

Real-time passenger counting using cellular data is rarely performed, due to several drawbacks: it requires gathering data from different mobile operators; it raises significant privacy concerns; it does not allow one to precisely discriminate passengers from general public in open areas.

“Real-time passenger counting using cellular data is rarely performed, due to several drawbacks: 1) it requires gathering data from different mobile operators; 2) it raises significant privacy concerns; 3) it does not allow one to precisely discriminate passengers from general public in open areas.”

May combine two claims.

The same identifier problem occurs for Bluetooth-enabled wireless devices and for the NFC protocol, which transfers an ID for anticollision during contactless reading of transponders.

“A similar problem arises for Bluetooth-enabled wireless devices [160], as well as for the NFC protocol that is based on the transfer of an ID for anticollision during the process of contactless reading of transponders [161].”

• cites [160] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [161] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In the proposed architecture the MPCSS subsystem must analyze, in real time, large amounts of multisource and multimodal data that differ in resolution, accuracy, reliability and redundancy.

“In the proposed architecture, indeed, the MPCSS subsystem must analyze in real time a large amount of multisource and multimodal data, which are characterized by different levels of resolution, accuracy, reliability, and redundancy.”

May combine two claims.

Although MAC address randomization complies with the GDPR, it adversely affects some crowd counting methods.

“However, although it is compliant with the GDPR, some crowd counting methods are adversely affected by MAC address randomization.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A continuous stream of current data can help public transport operators anticipate crowd situations.

“A constant stream of up-to-the-minute data can help PT system operators stay one step ahead of crowd situations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

IR-based APC or AFC systems could be a reasonable option to count passengers in railway/metro stations because access to train platforms is usually governed by turnstiles where tickets/passes must necessarily be validated.

“The access to train platforms is usually governed by turnstiles where tickets/passes must necessarily be validated: thus, IR-based APC or AFC systems could be a reasonable option to count passengers in this scenario.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Access to train platforms is usually governed by turnstiles where tickets/passes must necessarily be validated.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A first critical issue is the large bandwidth needed to connect thousands of devices and support hundreds of real-time video feeds together with data from ubiquitous sensors.

“A first critical issue is represented by the significant bandwidth demand to connect thousands of devices and support hundreds of real-time video feeds, along with data gathered from ubiquitous sensors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Vehicular scenarios (trains/buses/trams) are characterized by a well-delimited indoor space with a limited number of accesses (gates).

“1) Trains/Buses/Trams: Such vehicular scenarios are characterized by a well-delimited indoor space with a limited number of accesses (gates).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Vehicular scenarios (trains/buses/trams) have a well-delimited indoor space with a limited number of accesses (gates).

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

RF-based techniques could suffer from coverage problems, especially within metro/subway stations.

“RF-based techniques could suffer from coverage problems, especially within metro/subway stations.”

May combine two claims.

Security issues of the IoT paradigm are well known, but some aspects are specific to intelligent transportation systems.

“Security issues related to the IoT paradigm are well known in the literature, but there are some aspects peculiar to ITSs [156].”

• cites [156] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In railway and metro settings, combining the known number of onboard passengers on arriving trains with predictions of those alighting permits real-time estimation of station and platform access numbers with a small error margin.

“In railway/metro applications, based on the knowledge of the number of passengers aboard the arriving trains and the prediction of those alighting at the station, it will be possible to predict the number of accesses to stations/platforms with a low error margin and in real time, so as to avoid crowding.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Denial-of-service attacks could saturate infrastructure resources and completely halt the decision-making process.

“Furthermore, denialof-service attacks could be used to saturate the resources of the infrastructure to completely interrupt the decision-making process.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Every ICT infrastructure can be vulnerable to well-known cyberattacks.

May combine two claims.

Device-free NVB solutions based on RF or other physical properties are less harmful to individual privacy because they do not process device identifiers and, under the GDPR, do not collect personally identifiable information usable to identify a person during people counting.

“Device-free NVB solutions, both based on RF or other physical properties (such as audio or ultrasound signals), are less harmful to an individual's privacy since they do not require processing of devices' IDs and, thus, according to the GDPR, they do not collect personally identifiable information that could potentially be used to identify a particular person during people counting activities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The proposed reference architecture depends on ICT infrastructures, and most functions of the MPCSS subsystem could be implemented with modern cloud technologies.

“As an ICT-based evolution of the state-of-the-art ITSs, the proposed reference architecture strictly relies on ICT infrastructures too, i.e., most of the functions accomplished by the MPCSS subsystem could be implemented using modern cloud technologies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

With limited budgets and tight time frames, implementing a state-of-the-art communication subsystem can pose fundamental challenges.

“However, with limited budgets and compressed time frames, implementing a state-of-the-art CSS can present fundamental challenges.”

May combine two claims.

Security problems are especially serious across all parts of the reference architecture, chiefly because of the large volume of data exchanged among subsystems.

“Since every ICT infrastructure can be prone to well-known cyberattacks, security issues are particularly serious in all portions of our reference architecture, mainly due to the large volume of data exchanged among subsystems.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Every ICT infrastructure can be vulnerable to well-known cyberattacks.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Differential privacy is consistent with existing data protection laws, including the GDPR.

“This is in accordance with existing data protection laws, including the GDPR.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Three basic challenges face intelligent transportation systems that acquire and process large amounts of sensor data: bandwidth, latency, and heterogeneity of data and infrastructures.

“There are three basic challenges regarding ITSs based on acquisition and processing of large amounts of sensor data: bandwidth, latency, and heterogeneity of data and infrastructures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The large volume of data generated can be exploited by AI and machine/deep learning algorithms to better understand and plan aspects linked to quality-of-life improvements in urban areas and smart cities.

“The large amount of generated data can be used by AI and ML/DL algorithms to better understand and plan a series of aspects generally associated with improvements of the quality of life in urban areas and smart cities.”

May combine two claims.

Cryptographic techniques can transform identifier data to protect privacy and comply with the GDPR, but they are computationally intensive, need multiple keys to be generated and maintained, and consume more energy.

“Although cryptographic techniques can be used to transform ID data to preserve privacy, thereby complying with the GDPR, they are computationally intensive and require the generation and maintenance of multiple keys, which also leads to higher energy consumption.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The crowd management functions of the proposed framework offer innovations and advantages absent from current state-of-the-art intelligent transportation systems.

“The crowd management functionalities of the new framework can provide several innovations and advantages that are not present in state-of-the-art ITSs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A workable way to ensure privacy-by-default is to convert video-based feeds containing individuals into numbers and heatmaps so that the data subject is no longer identifiable.

“A viable approach to ensure privacy-bydefault consists of turning VB feeds featuring individuals into numbers and heatmaps in such a manner that the data subject is not or no longer identifiable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

CCTV surveillance systems are typically present inside stations and can be used for VB crowd analysis.

“Moreover, CCTV surveillance systems are typically present inside stations and can be used for VB crowd analysis.”

May combine two claims.

Unlike the other anti-COVID-19 solutions reviewed, the new framework does not aim only at enforcing social distancing; its scope is broader, using crowding information to adaptively optimize overall public transport performance.

“Compared to the other anti-COVID-19 solutions discussed in Section II, the new framework is not aimed at enforcing social distancing measures only.Its scope is wider since it tries to incorporate crowding information to adaptively optimize the overall performance of the PT system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Crowd-based route planning that accounts for dynamic traffic and crowding data reduces crowding and, in a pandemic, infection risk, and raises passenger quality of experience by spreading network load more efficiently.

“Such a feature not only helps reduce crowds (and the consequent infection risk in the case of a pandemic) but also improves the passenger QoE, by distributing more efficiently the load on the transportation network.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A malicious user could mount a man-in-the-middle attack that intercepts and alters messages exchanged between crowd monitoring tools and vehicles, potentially causing catastrophic effects in decision-making, particularly where self-driving vehicles are involved.

“A malicious user, for example, could launch a man-in-the-middle attack to the system, by intercepting and altering the content of the exchanged messages between crowd monitoring tools and vehicles, which could entail catastrophic effects in the decision-making phase, especially when self-driving vehicles are involved.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Every ICT infrastructure can be vulnerable to well-known cyberattacks.

May combine two claims.

This approach is difficult to be used in real time, whereas it is more suited for long-term travel demand estimation.

“However, this approach is difficult to be used in real time, whereas it is more suited for long-term travel demand estimation [152].”

• cites [152] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In railway/metro stations, many crowd monitoring options are available since access to the stations occurs through a limited number of gates.

“2) Railway/Metro Stations: Many crowd monitoring options are available in this scenario since the access to the stations occurs through a limited number of gates.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Railway/metro stations have access through a limited number of gates.

May combine two claims.

Both VB and NVB sensing technologies can be used at bus/tram stops.

“In this case, both VB and NVB sensing technologies can be used, but it is imperative to adopt cost-effective, rugged, and low-power solutions, in order to reduce the maintenance cost.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Solutions based on sensors installed on the vehicles are simple, but they require a large initial investment.

“Although solutions based on sensors installed on the vehicles are simple, they require a large initial investment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Bus/tram stops are by far the most difficult scenario to manage since bus/tram stops are usually located in outdoor spaces, not well delimited by fixed gates.

“3) Bus/Tram Stops: This scenario is by far the most difficult to manage since bus/tram stops are usually located in outdoor spaces, not well delimited by fixed gates.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Bus/tram stops are usually located in outdoor spaces and are not well delimited by fixed gates.

May combine two claims.

Users are given real-time information about the available capacity of arriving buses, trams and trains and about crowding at stops and stations, enabling them to avoid needless waiting or crowding and to reschedule trips.

“Users receive real-time information related to available capacity (in terms of number of seats or in percentage) of the bus/trams/trains in arrival and/or crowding at the stops/stations, so as to avoid unnecessary waiting or crowding and possibly reschedule their trips.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Many bus/tram stops are not equipped with shelters and are indicated by simple poles.

“Moreover, solutions that do not require significant infrastructures are preferred since, in many cases, the stops are not equipped with shelters and are indicated by simple poles.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Many bus/tram stops are not equipped with shelters and are indicated by simple poles.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The potential of crowd management extends beyond handling social distancing problems, also enabling real-time optimization and adaptive management of public transport systems.

“The potentials of crowd management go beyond the scope of dealing with typical social distancing problems, by also allowing real-time optimization and adaptive management of PT systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Applying model-based approaches to complex system-wide optimization appears difficult.

“To perform complex system-wide optimization, it seems difficult to apply model-based approaches.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Some features of the new framework resemble those of a contact tracing system, which can be implemented more easily through user cooperation.

“Some features of the new framework are similar to those of a contact tracing system, which can be implemented more easily by resorting to user cooperation.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The new framework consists of basic components and subsystems that can serve as building blocks for an evolved intelligent transportation system able to monitor and predict crowd situations in real time and to disseminate information to users at stops and stations or through mobile transport apps.

“The new framework is based on some basic components and subsystems, which can be used as building blocks to implement an evolved ITS, capable of real-time monitoring and predicting crowd situations, as well as disseminating useful information to users at the bus stops/stations and/or through mobile transport apps.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The crowd detection functions can be embedded in a more complex system that also offers ticket purchase and vehicle access reservation under heavy crowding, alongside typical mobile transport app functions.

“In this sense, the crowd detection functionalities can be incorporated in a more complex system, which can implement, besides the typical mobile transport app functionalities (such as Moovit), also the possibility to buy tickets and/or to reserve the access to the vehicles, in conditions of particular crowding.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cross-technology communication enables direct communication among different wireless technologies operating in the same spectrum band.

“Cross-technology communication (CTC) opens a new direction of direct communication among different wireless technologies when they operate in the same spectrum band [168].”

• cites [168] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Stop skipping can resolve overcrowding on a single vehicle but can worsen crowding at stops or metro platforms.

“As an example, stop skipping can solve the problem of single-vehicle overcrowding but can negatively affect crowding at the stops or metro platforms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

From a communication standpoint, an intelligent transportation system is a heterogeneous network in which a huge number of devices connect to global networks through multiple technologies and platforms with varying intelligence levels.

“From a communication viewpoint, an ITS is a heterogeneous network, where a huge number of devices are connected to global networks using multiple technologies and platforms (i.e., cloud, edge, and wireless), with various intelligence levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These cross-technology communication technologies are purely software-based and need no hardware modification.

“These technologies are purely a software-based solution, requiring no hardware modification.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

This could be a decisive incentive for using a public transport system.

“This could represent a decisive incentive to the use of a PT system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Conventionally, communication between different wireless technologies goes indirectly through gateways with multiple radio interfaces, which will become a bottleneck as many heterogeneous IoT devices are deployed.

“Traditionally, communication between different wireless technologies is achieved indirectly via gateways equipped with multiple radio interfaces, which will become a bottleneck when many heterogeneous IoT devices are deployed.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In many papers, crowd control strategies are applied only to single lines or a small portion of the network.

“Indeed, in many papers, crowd control strategies are localized, i.e., they are applied only to single lines or to a small portion of the network, whereas obviously crowd control must be applied holistically to the whole PT network.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Crowd control must be applied holistically to the whole public transport network.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The proposed reference architecture gives rise to challenges including incentive mechanisms for user cooperation, data fusion and processing of heterogeneous data, security, privacy, broadband and ultralow-latency communications, and system-wide optimization of crowd control strategies.

“A series of challenges arises from the proposed reference architecture, such as incentive mechanisms for user cooperation, DF and processing of heterogeneous data, security, privacy, broadband and ultralow latency communications, and system-wide optimization of crowd control strategies.”