Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: points of commonality, points of departure

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most contemporary understandings of spirituality fall into one of three categories: God-oriented, world-oriented, or humanistic.

“Spilka's (1993) review of the literature led him to conclude that most contemporary understandings of spirituality fall into one of three categories: 1) a God-oriented spirituality where thought and practice are premised in theologies, either broadly or narrowly conceived; 2) a world-oriented spirituality stressing one's relationship with ecology or nature; or 3) a humanistic (or people-oriented )”

• cites Spilka, 1993Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is little systematic conceptualization of the relationship of religion and spirituality by social scientists, especially psychologists.

“It will be discovered that there is little systematic conceptualization of the relationship of the two constructs by social scientists, especially psychologists.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: There is little systematic conceptualization of the relationship of religion and spirituality by social scientists, especially psychologists.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Past attempts to define religion and spirituality are often too narrow, resulting in operational definitions that foster empirical research programs with limited value, or too broad, resulting in a loss of distinctive characteristics of religion and spirituality.

“In fact, it will be argued that past attempts to define these constructs are often too narrow, resulting in operational definitions that foster programs of empirical research with limited value, or too broad, resulting in a loss of distinctive characteristics of religion and spirituality.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Spirituality should be viewed as a multidimensional construct.

“Thus, according to Spilka, spirituality should be viewed as a multidimensional construct.”

• cites Spilka, 1993Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Given limited understanding of contemporary religion and spirituality, it is premature to insist on a single comprehensive definition of either term.

“Given our limited understanding of contemporary religion and spirituality, it is perhaps premature to insist on a single comprehensive definition of either term”

May combine two claims.

Not all current conceptions of spirituality are linked to religion, though the use of the term apart from religion has a surprisingly short history.

“Not all current conceptions of spirituality are linked to religion, though the use of the term apart from religion has a surprisingly short history”

• cites Sheldrake, 1992Not checked yet

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• cites Wulff, 1997Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Religion and spirituality are complex phenomena, multidimensional in nature.

“Both spirituality and religion are complex phenomena, multidimensional in nature”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The latter half of the 20th century has witnessed a rise of secularism and growing disillusionment with religious institutions in western society.

“The latter half of the 20 th century has witnessed a rise of secularism and a growing disillusionment with religious institutions in western society.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The latter half of the 20th century has witnessed a rise of secularism and growing disillusionment with religious institutions in western society.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The recent schism between religion and spirituality is the result of human knowledge and historical-cultural events that continually affect perceptions of the divine.

“Sheldrake (1992) suggests that the recent schism between religion and spirituality is the result of human knowledge and historical-cultural events that continually affect peoples' perceptions of the divine.”

• cites Sheldrake, 1992Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Revisionists of secularization theory contend that secularization calls for the transformation, not the elimination, of religion.

“Revisionists of secularization theory (e.g., Hunter, 1983;Luckmann, 1967;Stark & Bainbridge, 1996) contend that secularization calls for the transformation, not the elimination, of religion.”

• cites Hunter, 1983Not checked yet

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• cites Luckmann, 1967Not checked yet

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• cites Stark & Bainbridge, 1996Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Spirituality appears to be the favored term to describe individual experience and is identified with personal transcendence, supraconscious sensitivity, and meaningfulness.

“Spirituality appears to be the favored term to describe individual experience and is identified with such things as personal transcendence, supraconscious sensitivity, and meaningfulness (Spilka & Mclntosh, 1996).”

• cites Spilka & Mclntosh, 1996Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The term spiritual is increasingly reserved for the loftier/functional side of life.

“the term spiritual is increasingly reserved for the loftier/ functional side of life”

• cites Pargament, 1999Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

New spiritual practices are evolving within a context of individualism in American religious culture.

“it is within this context of individualism in American religious culture that new spiritual practices are evolving (Zinnbauer, Pargament, & Scott, 1999)”

• cites Zinnbauer, Pargament, & Scott, 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Researchers have recently argued for the need to avoid simple labels of religion and spirituality as wholly good or wholly bad.

“Researchers have recently argued for the need to avoid simple labels of religion and spirituality as wholly good or wholly bad (Zinnbauer, Pargament, & Scott, 1999).”

• cites Zinnbauer, Pargament, & Scott, 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Religion and spirituality are relevant to the study of personality and in the genetic determinants of personality.

“Religion and spirituality are relevant to the study of personality and in the genetic determinants of personality.”

• cites Maslow, 1964Not checked yet

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• cites Tart, 1975Not checked yet

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• cites Wenegrat, 1990Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Recent definitions of religion have become more narrow and less inclusive.

“Therefore, recent definitions of religion have become more narrow and less inclusive.”

May combine two claims.

Unlike the clergy, most cues used by the nurses in Zinnbauer (1997) were associated with either religiousness or spirituality, and no single cue was found in a majority of the nurses' policies.

“Unlike the clergy, most cues used by the nurses were associated with either religiousness or spirituality, and no single cue was found in a majority of the nurses' policies.”

• cites Zinnbauer, 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The nurses' judgment policies in Zinnbauer (1997) were similar to several current conceptions of the constructs: religiousness was predominantly associated with formal/organizational religion, while spirituality was more often associated with closeness to God and feelings of interconnectedness with the world and living things.

“The nurses' judgment policies were similar to several current conceptions of the constructs: religiousness was predominantly associated with formal/organizational religion, while spirituality was more often associated with closeness to God and feelings of interconnectedness with the world and living things.”

• cites Zinnbauer, 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In Zinnbauer et al. (1997), definitions of religiousness included both personal beliefs, such as belief in God or a higher power, and institutional beliefs and practices such as church membership, church attendance, and commitment to the belief system of a church or organized religion.

“Definitions of religiousness included both personal beliefs, such as a belief in God or a higher power, and institutional beliefs and practices such as church membership, church attendance, and commitment to the belief system of a church or organized religion.”

• cites Zinnbauer et al., 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Zinnbauer et al. (1997) found that religiousness and spirituality were not totally independent, although participants defined them quite differently.

“found that the two concepts were not totally independent, although participants defined religiousness and spirituality quite differently.”

• cites Zinnbauer et al., 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Communication within the social scientific study of these constructs and across other disciplines may be impaired by a lack of common understanding and clinical agreement.

“communication within the social scientific study of these constructs and across other disciplines may be impaired by a lack of common understanding and clinical agreement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Ideologies, activities, and lifestyles are not spiritual unless they involve considerations of the sacred.

“ideologies, activities, and lifestyles are not spiritual (even though they can be fulfilling, moving, important, or worthwhile), we would argue, unless they involve considerations of the sacred.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Without a clearer conception of what the terms religion and spirituality mean, it may be difficult to know with any precision or reliability what researchers attribute to them.

“Without a clearer conception of what these terms mean, it may be difficult to know with any precision or reliability what researchers attribute to them.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Current approaches to the study of spirituality include a lack of grounding in both theory and research.

“current approaches to the study of spirituality include a lack of grounding in both theory and research”

• cites Pargament, 1997Not checked yet

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• cites Pargament, 1999Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Behaviors or lifestyles are not spiritual simply because they serve an integrative function in life.

“behaviors or lifestyles are not spiritual simply because they serve an integrative function in life.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Scott's analysis points to substantial diversity in the content of religiousness and spirituality definitions.

“Her analysis points to substantial diversity in the content of religiousness and spirituality definitions.”

May combine two claims.

Society helps define things as sacred, and every society has sacred objects.

“it is society that helps define things as sacred, and every society has sacred objects.”

• cites Durkheim, 1912/1965Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Scott (1997) performed a content analysis of a sample of 31 definitions of religiousness and 40 definitions of spirituality that have appeared in social scientific writings in the 20th century.

“She performed a content analysis of a sample of 31 definitions of religiousness and 40 definitions of spirituality that have appeared in social scientific writings in the 20 th century”

• cites Scott, 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Scott (1997) found substantial differences in how both religion and spirituality are viewed.

“Scott (1997) found substantial differences in how both religion and spirituality are viewed.”

• cites Scott, 1997Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Spirituality or religiousness is understood as a way of living or behaving.

“In this way, spirituality or religiousness is understood as a way of living or behaving.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

For others, the religious or spiritual search is primarily a way of thinking or reflecting about such issues as the nature of reality or one's purpose for existence.

“For others, the religious or spiritual search is primarily a way of thinking or reflecting about such issues as the nature of reality or one's purpose for existence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

For others, how one behaves in the search for the sacred is the defining characteristic of religion or spirituality.

“for others, how one behaves in the search for the sacred is the defining characteristic of religion or spirituality.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Both spirituality and religion involve a search process.

“Both spirituality and religion involve a search process.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Both spirituality and religion include the subjective feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that arise from a search for the sacred.

“both spirituality and religion include the subjective feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that arise from a search for the sacred.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

William James viewed emotion as the driving force of religion.

“William James (1902/1961) viewed emotion as the driving force of religion.”

• cites James, 1902/1961Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

What is sacred is a socially influenced perception of either some sense of ultimate reality or truth or some divine being/object.

“What is sacred, therefore, is a socially influenced perception of either some sense of ultimate reality or truth or some divine being/object.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

We cannot confuse simply what is important in our lives with what is sacred or divine; for something to be sacred or divine, it must be able to take on sacred or divine attributes, either in character or because it is associated with the sacred or divine.

“we cannot confuse simply what is important in our lives with what is sacred or divine; for something to be sacred or divine, it must be able to take on sacred or divine attributes, either in character or because it is associated with the sacred or divine.”

• cites Pargament, 1997Not checked yet

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• cites Pargament, 1999Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The sacred is not automatically known nor does it necessarily impose itself on the individual.

“the sacred is not automatically known nor does it necessarily impose itself on the individual.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Many religious traditions and contemporary approaches to spirituality emphasize the responsibility, even the struggle, of the individual to seek that which is sacred.

“Many religious traditions and contemporary approaches to spirituality emphasize the responsibility, even the struggle, of the individual to seek that which is sacred.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The content of what one believes may provide a worldview or a perspective through which the world is translated, understood, and experienced.

“The content of what one believes may provide a worldview or a perspective through which the world is translated, understood, and experienced.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For some, the spiritual or religious search for the sacred is primarily one of feeling.

“For some, the spiritual or religious search for the sacred is primarily one of feeling.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Attempts to identify, articulate, maintain, and transform the sacred will find experiential expression in different ways.

“Attempts to identify, articulate, maintain, and transform the sacred will find experiential expression in different ways.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Often the search for the non-sacred may be conducted in a setting or context (e.g., a mosque, temple, church or synagogue) that is designed to foster the search for the sacred.

“Often the search for the non-sacred may be conducted in a setting or context (e.g., a mosque, temple, church or synagogue) that is designed to foster the search for the sacred.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Though people typically may differ between their experiences of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors as they engage in a search for the sacred, for most, all three domains of human existence will be affected.

“Though people typically may differ between their experiences of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors as they engage in a search for the sacred, for most, all three domains of human existence will be affected.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. The quote only partly states this claim.

The search for the sacred involves processes of identifying, articulating, maintaining, and transforming the sacred.

“The search for the sacred involves a number of processes, each of which deserves the collective attention of psychologists of religion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Berger suggests that religious legitimation involves a certain degree of mystification in that it is understood as something beyond a human convention.

“Berger (1967) suggests that religious legitimation involves a certain degree of mystification in that it is understood as something beyond a human convention.”

• cites Berger, 1967Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Spirituality is a central and essential function of religion.

“The criteria discussed above suggest that spirituality is a central and essential function of religion.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

A key empirical issue is the degree of difference, indicated by belief as well as behavioral norms, between a religious group and the dominant social order, which results in accommodation to or rejection of the host culture and also fosters a reaction of the host culture to the religious group.

“Hood et al. (1996) contend that a key empirical issue is the degree of difference, indicated by belief as well as behavioral norms, between the religious group and the dominant social order that results not only in the accommodation to or rejection of the host culture, but also fosters a reaction of the host culture to the religious group.”

• cites Hood et al., 1996Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Sects are more exclusive groups that reject the host culture and often demand strong commitments from members in the search for the sacred.

“Sects, in contrast, are more exclusive groups that reject the host culture and often demand strong commitments from members in the search for the sacred.”

May combine two claims.

Over time, some sects may accommodate culture and reemerge as churches, though many sects retain their insulation.

“Over time, some sects may accommodate culture and reemerge as churches (Stark & Bainbridge, 1979), though many sects retain their insulation.”

• cites Stark & Bainbridge, 1979Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Religion may or may not include a search for non-sacred goals in a context that has as its primary goal the facilitation of the search for the sacred.

“Religion (only) may (or may not) include a search for non-sacred goals (such as social identity, affiliation, health, wellness) in a context that has as its primary goal the facilitation of the search for the sacred (Criterion B).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A criterion unique to religion is that both the means and the methods in the search for the sacred are prescribed and supported by an identifiable group that is formed on the basis of the search itself.

“Yet another criterion unique to religion is that both the means and the methods in the search for the sacred are prescribed and supported by an identifiable group that is formed on the basis of the search itself.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Religion involves the means and methods (e.g., rituals or prescribed behaviors) of the search for the sacred that receive validation and support from within an identifiable group.

“Religion involves the means and methods (e.g., rituals or prescribed behaviors) of the search for the sacred that receive validation and support from within an identifiable group (Criterion C).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The religious group provides a socially established explanation that can justify a course of action; such legitimation supports and encourages the religious group to interpret the meaning of its existence and to make sense of its social order.

“the religious group provides a socially established explanation that can justify a course of action; such legitimation supports and encourages the religious group to interpret the meaning of its existence and to make sense of its social order (McGuire, 1981).”

• cites McGuire, 1981Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Unlike sects, cults lack prior connections with religious bodies and often tend to emerge under the leadership of a powerful and charismatic leader.

“Unlike sects, however, cults lack prior connections with religious bodies and often tend to emerge under the leadership of a powerful and charismatic leader.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many sects view the church's accommodation of culture as a compromise of its religious values.

“Many sects view the church's accommodation of culture as a compromise of its religious values.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A legitimated group that prescribes methods in the search for the sacred is religious, regardless of whether it receives external recognition or acceptance by the culture at large.

“A legitimated group that prescribes methods in the search for the sacred is religious, regardless of whether or not it receives external recognition or acceptance by the culture at large.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Because prescription of specific behaviors may even be resisted in contemporary spirituality, justifying spiritually sacred courses of action may be less necessary.

“because prescription of specific behaviors may even be resisted in contemporary spirituality, justifying spiritually sacred courses of action may be less necessary.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Churches, sects, and cults all practice spirituality, since they all involve some search for the sacred, even when this occurs within the context of a religious group.

“Since churches, sects, and cults involve some search for the sacred, we can say they all practice spirituality, even if done within the context of a religious group (Criterion A).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Churches, sects, and cults all involve some search for the sacred.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The church, or what is commonly called a denomination, is viewed as an inclusive group that accommodates the host culture.

“Discussions of the church-sect typology ( Niebuhr, 1929;Troeltsch, 1931) maintain that the church, or what is commonly called a denomination, is viewed as an inclusive group that accommodates the host culture.”

• cites Niebuhr, 1929Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Troeltsch, 1931Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Churches and emerging religious groups such as sects or cults qualify as religious because they legitimate or justify their actions.

“It should be noted, for example, that churches or emerging religious groups (e.g., sects or cults) qualify as being religious because they legitimate or justify their actions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Like sects, cults can also operate in rejection of the host culture.

“Like sects, cults can also operate in rejection of the host culture.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

To the extent that religious or spiritual groups articulate specific beliefs at odds with mainstream culture, they risk having their internal systems of justification used by the larger culture as criteria for rejection.

“To the extent that religious or spiritual groups articulate specific beliefs at odds with mainstream culture, they risk having their internal systems of justification used by the larger culture as criteria for rejection.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Beliefs and experiences considered to be aspects of traditional religiousness (e.g., prayer, church attendance, reading of sacred writings) are also spiritual if they are activated by an individual's search for the sacred.

“Beliefs and experiences that are considered to be an aspect of traditional religiousness (e.g., prayer, church attendance, reading of sacred writings, etc.) are also spiritual if they are activated by an individual's search for the sacred.”

May combine two claims.

Polarizing the terms as individual-institutional or good-bad oversimplifies these complex constructs and can confound their definition and measurement with their outcomes.

“Likewise, polarizing the terms as individual-institutional or good-bad not only oversimplifies these complex constructs, but can confound their definition and measurement of these concepts with their outcomes (Zinnbauer et al., 1999).”

• cites Zinnbauer et al., 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The practice of spirituality can lead people to become religious and to become part of an organized or emerging religion, but it also may not.

“By the same token, the practice of spirituality can lead people to become religious and to become part of an organized or emerging religion, but it also may not.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

To the extent that spirituality is defined as a more or less coherent picture of what is sacred and a lifestyle that incorporates beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions in response to this picture of the sacred, religion can be understood as, among other things, a repository for one or more spiritualities.

“Additionally, to the extent that spirituality is defined as a more or less coherent picture of what is sacred and a lifestyle that incorporates beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions in response to this picture of the sacred, then religion can be understood as, among other things, a repository for one or more spiritualities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The proposed criteria are broad and flexible enough for scholars to adapt to the particular phenomena they investigate in relation to religion or spirituality, but are not so broad that they dilute the meaning of either construct.

“These criteria are broad and flexible enough for scholars to readily adapt to the needs of the particular phenomena they are investigating in relation to religion or spirituality, but are not so broad that they dilute the meaning of either construct.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The criteria proposed highlight the difficulty of separating religion from spirituality.

“These criteria also highlight the difficulty of separating religion from spirituality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Things people hold precious (e.g., commitment to social justice, vegetarianism, gardening, music) should not be confused with a search for the sacred unless they take on lasting sacred attributes.

“However, none of these should be confused with a search for the sacred unless it takes on lasting sacred attributes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Scholars who advocate for one construct against the other risk losing sight of the empirical data already gathered in studies of both phenomena and can thereby close the door to future opportunities to explore the similarities and differences between the constructs.

“They risk losing sight of the empirical data already gathered in studies of both phenomena, and can thereby close the door to future opportunities to explore the similarities and differences between the constructs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

If any belief or activity that provides individuals with a sense of identity or meaning is defined as a religious or spiritual endeavor, then the field knows no bounds and becomes outside the purview of what is spiritual or religious.

“Indeed, if any belief or activity that provides individuals with a sense of identity or meaning (e.g., involvement in a social club) is defined as a religious or spiritual endeavor, then this field literally knows no bounds and becomes outside the purview of what is spiritual or religious.”

May combine two claims.

Spirituality can and often does occur within the context of religion, but it also may not.

“Spirituality can and often does occur within the context of religion, but it also may not.”