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Cited by 1,834Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesCognitive Abilities and TestingHistorical and Modern Theater Studies

Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure

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Friedman, Naomi P., Miyake, Akira·2017·Cortex
DOI 10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023PMC PMC5104682
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Abstract

Executive functions (EFs) are high-level cognitive processes, often associated with the frontal lobes, that control lower level processes in the service of goal-directed behavior. They include abilities such as response inhibition, interference control, working memory updating, and set shifting. EFs show a general pattern of shared but distinct functions, a pattern described as "unity and diversity". We review studies of EF unity and diversity at the behavioral and genetic levels, focusing on studies of normal individual differences and what they reveal about the functional organization of these cognitive abilities. In particular, we review evidence that across multiple ages and populations, commonly studied EFs (a) are robustly correlated but separable when measured with latent variables; (b) are not the same as general intelligence or g; (c) are highly heritable at the latent level and seemingly also highly polygenic; and (d) activate both common and specific neural areas and can be linked to individual differences in neural activation, volume, and connectivity. We highlight how considering individual differences at the behavioral and neural levels can add considerable insight to the investigation of the functional organization of the brain, and conclude with some key points about individual differences to consider when interpreting neuropsychological patterns of dissociation.

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  • There is extensive evidence that EF is a fractionated construct as measured by both informant report and laboratory tasks.

    “There is extensive evidence that EF is a fractionated construct both as measured by informant report and laboratory tasks (Friedman & Miyake, 2017; Gioia et al., 2002; Miyake et al., 2000; Teuber, 1972).”

    From Data‐driven identification of subtypes of executive function across typical development, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorders (2020) · cites this paper as Friedman & Miyake, 2017

    Section 2.2 reports extensive evidence that laboratory EF tasks cluster into separable but correlated factors, supporting a fractionated construct. The passages found do not establish the same pattern for EF measured by informant report; Section 3.2 discusses teacher-rated attention problems as a correlate of task-based EFs, not as an informant-report measure of EF structure. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

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  • Across ADHD meta-analyses, estimates of working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting deficits rely largely on tasks criticized for suboptimal construct validity and structural organization relative to contemporary cognitive psychology.

    “Across ADHD meta-analyses, estimates of deficits in working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting are based in large part, and in some cases entirely, on data from tasks that have been criticized for suboptimal construct validity (Redick & Lindsey, 2013) and structural organization (Friedman & Miyake, 2017) relative to contemporary advancements in cognitive psychology (Snyder et al., 2015).”

    From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Friedman & Miyake, 2017

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  • In adults, converging research supports the unity-but-diversity view and argues that executive functions have three distinct yet related core dimensions: inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.

    “In adults, converging research supports the unity-but-diversity view and argues that EF have three distinct yet related “core” dimensions: inhibitory control WM and cognitive flexibility (Garon et al., 2008; Friedman and Miyake, 2017).”

    From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Friedman and Miyake, 2017

    Section 2.2 (page not provided) reports that studies in adults generally find separable but correlated EF factors, supporting the unity-but-diversity view. But it says factor structures vary and the three EFs examined are not a comprehensive set of core dimensions. Section 3.1 also reports that the authors could not extract an inhibition-specific factor in multiple datasets, so the claim overstates how distinctly inhibition separates from the other functions. (LLM, conf=0.86)

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  • The proposal that unity captures goal maintenance and biasing is a classic conception of cognitive control and frontal lobe function.

    “This proposal that unity captures goal maintenance and biasing [29] is in fact a classic conception of CC and frontal lobe function [8, 170, 171].”

    From The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function (2022) · cites this paper as [29]

  • An alternative proposal is that the unity component reflects individual differences in the ability to actively maintain goals and use those goals to bias ongoing processing.

    “An alternative proposal is that the unity component reflects individual differences in the ability to actively maintain goals and use those goals to bias ongoing processing [29, 97, 167].”

    From The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function (2022) · cites this paper as [29]

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Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Baddeley AD Hitch GJ 1974 Working memory Bower GH Psychology of Learning and Motivation 8 47 89 New York Academic Press

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Authors
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A.
Affiliations
University of Colorado Boulder (US)
Corresponding author
Friedman, Naomi P.
ORCID
Venue
Cortex
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2017-01
Volume
86
Pages
186-204
ISSN
0010-9452 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023
PMC
PMC5104682
OpenAlex
W2346240097
Cited by
1,834
References
166
Citations by year
2026: 205 · 2025: 205 · 2024: 230 · 2023: 213 · 2022: 229 · 2021: 243 · 2020: 186 · 2019: 150 · 2018: 124 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 6
FWCI
11.29
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Cortex (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Health (MH063207, AG046938)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Historical and Modern Theater Studies
Keywords
executive function, unity and diversity, individual differences, response inhibition, interference control, working memory updating, set-shifting, general intelligence, heritability, polygenic architecture, neuronal activation, brain volume, neuronal connectivity, latent variables, frontal lobe
MeSH terms
Brain, Cognition, Humans, Individuality, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Executive Function

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