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Ethnic Discrimination in Germany’s Labour Market: A Field Experiment
Abstract
Abstract This paper studies ethnic discrimination in Germany’s labour market with a correspondence test. We send two similar applications to each of 528 advertisements for student internships, one with a Turkish-sounding and one with a German-sounding name. A German name raises the average probability of a callback by about 14%. Differential treatment is particularly strong and significant in smaller firms at which the applicant with the German name receives 24% more callbacks. Discrimination disappears when we restrict our sample to applications including reference letters which contain favourable information about the candidate’s personality. We interpret this finding as evidence for statistical discrimination.
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“Correspondingly, Kaas & Manger (2012) find no discrimination in a field experimental study in Germany when reference letters for applicants include positive information about the applicants.”
From Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments (2021) · cites this paper as Kaas & Manger (2012)
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Zschirnt, E. (2019) · Swiss Journal of Sociology · doi:10.2478/sjs-2019-0007 · Cited by 13
“Looking, for example, at the in-person audit study by Pager et al. (2009), the results from the field experiment are complemented with testers’ observations on the differences in treatment.”
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“This experimental technique has mainly been applied for detecting discrimination (cf. Gaddis 2015; Kaas and Manger 2011; McGinnity and Lunn 2011) and involves sending sets of written application documents with randomly varied characteristics of fictitious individuals to employers to observe their…”
BackgroundMethodInformation advantages of training employers despite credible training certificates
Mohrenweiser, J., Wydra‐Somaggio, G., & Zwick, T. (2019) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/gpz052 · Cited by 11
Busetta, G., Campolo, M. G., & Panarello, D. (2020) · International Journal of Social Economics · doi:10.1108/ijse-02-2020-0055 · Cited by 11
Prejudice, Does It Exist or Not? Consumer Price Discrimination in Minority Entrepreneurship
Liu, F., Liao, X., & Ming, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02180 · Cited by 11
“, 2011; MacDonald and Hasmath, 2019) and is especially reflected in the labor market (Carlsson and Rooth, 2007; Wood et al., 2009; Kaas and Manger, 2012; Zschirnt and Ruedin, 2016; Neumark, 2018).”
BackgroundHellmann, J. H., Berthold, A., Rees, J. H., & Hellmann, D. F. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01422 · Cited by 11
“In a field experiment, Kaas and Manger (2012) identified one possibility of tackling intergroup discrimination on the job market: These researchers sent out application letters to German companies from applicants with a German vs. Turkishsounding name.”
BackgroundHöhne, J., & Koopmans, R. (2010) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 11
Adida, C. L., Laitin, D. D., & Valfort, M. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2324280 · Cited by 10
Gerhards, J., Sawert, T., & Tuppat, J. (2020) · Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies · doi:10.1080/1369183x.2020.1754771 · Cited by 10
Braack, M. K., Milewski, N., & Trappe, H. (2021) · Gender Issues · doi:10.1007/s12147-021-09281-8 · Cited by 10
“Many of these differences between migrants and non-migrants can be attributed to discrimination by employers or by the host society [54], and to differences in the resources and the educational and vocational qualifications of non-migrants and migrants [43].”
BackgroundReichel, A., Lazarova, M. B., Apospori, E., Afiouni, F., Andresen, M., Bosak, J., Parry, E., Bagdadli, S., Briscoe, J. P., Gianecchini, M., et al. (2022) · Human Resource Management Journal · doi:10.1111/1748-8583.12431 · Cited by 10
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Discrimination based on political beliefs: A field experiment on the freedom of assembly
Adam, C., Grohs, S., & Knill, C. (2020) · Public Policy and Administration · doi:10.1177/0952076720905012 · Cited by 10
“…in particular have become a popular method of evaluating the prevalence of discriminatory behavior in the private sector (Darolia et al., 2015; Kaas and Manger, 2012) and by public officials (Butler and Broockman, 2011; Einstein and Glick, 2016; Ernst et al., 2013; Grohs et al., 2016; Schram…”
MethodDiscriminatory Lending: Evidence from Bankers in the Lab
Brock, J., & Haas, R. D. (2021) · American Economic Journal Applied Economics · doi:10.1257/app.20210180 · Cited by 16
Martiny, S. E., & Froehlich, L. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-27275-3_1 · Cited by 10
Social Integration and Workplace Industrial Relations
Schmidt, W. W., & Müller, A. (2013) · Relations industrielles · doi:10.7202/1018432ar · Cited by 10
Risk and protective factors of delinquency that are sensitive to migration and culture
Schmidt, S., Bliesener, T., & van der Meer, E. E. (2019) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2019.1597088 · Cited by 10
Employers’ role and influence in migration: a literature review
Chen, E. (2013) · Cited by 10
Pedulla, D. S., Muñoz, J., Wullert, K. E., & Dias, F. A. (2021) · Sociology of Race and Ethnicity · doi:10.1177/23326492211029336 · Cited by 10
“…for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries between 1990 and 2015, Eva Zschirnt and Didier Ruedin (2016) note that German-speaking countries are especially characterized by a job application process requiring extensive information about the applicants (Kaas and Manger 2012).”
BackgroundHow regional attitudes towards immigration shape the chance to obtain asylum: Evidence from Germany
Gundacker, L., Kosyakova, Y., & Schneider, G. (2024) · Migration Studies · doi:10.1093/migration/mnae002 · Cited by 10
Ferrara, A., & Salikutluk, Z. (2024) · Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies · doi:10.1080/1369183x.2024.2378213 · Cited by 11
“In Germany, this includes specific national origin groups – African, Turkish, and Asian-origin students – as well as first-generation students, who do not have a mixed German background (Kaas and Manger 2012; Koopmans, Veit, and Yemane 2019; Thijs-sen et al. 2021).”
Does additional work experience moderate ethnic discrimination in the labour market?
Ahmad, A. (2020) · Economic and Industrial Democracy · doi:10.1177/0143831x20969828 · Cited by 9
“Scholarship using this methodological tool has been conducted in various other countries including, among others, Switzerland (Zschirnt, 2019), Belgium (Baert et al., 2017), Norway (Midtbøen, 2015), Germany (Kaas and Manger, 2012), Ireland (McGinnity and Lunn, 2011), Australia (Booth and Leigh, 2010), Greece (Drydakis…”
BackgroundCaste, religion and the labor force participation of women: evidence from India
Alvi, M. F. (2023) · Review of Social Economy · doi:10.1080/00346764.2023.2223167 · Cited by 9
“22 These methods have, and, could usefully be modified and adopted to analyze data from other countries where ethnic and religious gaps in economic participation and labor market discrimination remain wide and understudied (Bernardelli et al., 2020; Kaas & Manger, 2012).”
Söhn, J. (2020) · Empirical research in vocational education and training · doi:10.1186/s40461-020-00090-z · Cited by 9
The labor market participation of recently-arrived immigrant women in Germany
Schieckoff, B., & Diehl, C. (2021) · Journal of Family Research · doi:10.20377/jfr-462 · Cited by 9
Fyhn, T., Sveinsdóttir, V. Ó., Rème, S. E., & Sandal, G. M. (2021) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-213568 · Cited by 10
The link between smoking, drinking and wages: Health, workplace social capital or discrimination?
Dilmaghani, M. (2022) · Industrial Relations Journal · doi:10.1111/irj.12361 · Cited by 9
By Any Other Name: Discrimination in Resume Screening
Derous, E., & Ryan, A. M. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199764921.013.017 · Cited by 9
Assessing Discrimination in Correspondence Studies
Menés, J. R., & Rovira, M. (2019) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124119826152 · Cited by 9
Class Discrimination? Evidence from Jamaica: A Racially Homogeneous Labor Market
Spencer, N., Urquhart, M.-A., & Whitely, P. (2019) · Review of Radical Political Economics · doi:10.1177/0486613419832674 · Cited by 9
“This raises the question of whether Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) and those building on their work (including Oreopoulos 2011; Kaas and Manger 2012; Nunley et al. 2014) actually measure racial discrimination or discrimination by class or a combination of the two.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSymbolische Grenzen und die Grenzarbeit von Migrantinnen und Migranten
Gerhards, J., & Kämpfer, S. (2017) · Zeitschrift für Soziologie · doi:10.1515/zfsoz-2017-1017 · Cited by 12
“…im Durchschnitt wesentlich mehr Bewerbungen versenden müssen, um ähnlich erfolgreich zu sein wie Bewerberinnen mit im Untersuchungsland gebräuchlichen Namen (Bertrand & Mullainathan 2004; Fryer & Levitt 2004; Widner & Chicoine 2011; Kaas & Manger 2012; Jacquemet & Yannelis 2012; Blommaert et al.”
BackgroundDoes social distance modulate adults’ egocentric biases when reasoning about false beliefs?
Farrar, B. G., & Ostojić, L. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198616 · Cited by 9
Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field ExperimentsPreprint
Quillian, L., & Midtbøen, A. H. (2020) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/5z6a2 · Cited by 9
Ten Messages About Youth Employment in South East Europe
World Bank Group (2016) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/25375 · Cited by 8
Kalemba, J. (2022) · Gender Work and Organization · doi:10.1111/gwao.12873 · Cited by 8
Schieckoff, B. (2023) · Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies · doi:10.1080/1369183x.2023.2222915 · Cited by 12
“For females of colour (speci fi cally Turks, see Kaas and Manger 2012; Quillian et al. 2019), and for Muslim females who wear a hijab, a symbol of ‘ otherness ’ in the German context (Weich-selbaumer 2020), experimental studies have measured signi fi cant levels of labour market discrimination.”
Field Experiments: Correspondence Studies
Bertrand, M., & Duflo, E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-4166-5_16 · Cited by 8
Gendered Pathways to Integration: Why Immigrants’ Naming Practices Differ by the Child’s Gender
Gerhards, J., & Tuppat, J. (2020) · KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie · doi:10.1007/s11577-020-00717-9 · Cited by 8
Understanding Discrimination: Outcome-Relevant Information Does Not Mitigate Discrimination
Pedersen, M. J., & Nielsen, V. L. (2022) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spac006 · Cited by 9
Bedaso, F. J., & Jirjahn, U. (2023) · British Journal of Industrial Relations · doi:10.1111/bjir.12779 · Cited by 8
Anticipation of Life Satisfaction Before Emigration: Evidence from German Panel Data
Erlinghagen, M. (2016) · Creative economy · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55753-1_13 · Cited by 8
Conditions and constraints of political participation among Turkish students in Germany
Reichert, F. (2017) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2017.1351675 · Cited by 8
“Youths from (Turkish) immigrant families are significantly disadvantaged with respect to vocational training and job search compared to their German peers—even if they have equivalent school leaving degrees (Goldberg, Mourinho, & Kulke, 1995; Granato, 2003; Hunkler, 2016; Kaas & Manger, 2010).”
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Immigration, social networks and occupational mismatch
Alaverdyan, S., & Zaharieva, A. (2022) · Economic Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.econmod.2022.105936 · Cited by 8
Mauduy, M., Priolo, D., Margas, N., & Sénémeaud, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.989599 · Cited by 8
“, elderly, homosexual, obese), immigrants and other people from foreign countries are commonly victims of discrimination (Kaas and Manger, 2012; Sasaki et al., 2017).”
BackgroundAlizade, J., Dancygier, R. M., & Ditlmann, R. (2020) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/711056 · Cited by 10
Auer, D., Bonoli, G., Fossati, F., & Liechti, F. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2750794 · Cited by 8
Segerer, R. K., Niklas, F., Suggate, S. P., & Schneider, W. (2020) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.300 · Cited by 7
Translating difference: whiteness, racialisation and queer migration in Berlin
Altay, T. (2023) · European Journal of Politics and Gender · doi:10.1332/25151088y2023d000000012 · Cited by 8
Happiness and Employment Status
Yagi, T., Urakawa, K., & Yonezaki, K. (2016) · Creative economy · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55753-1_9 · Cited by 7
On race, ethnicity and on the economic cost of immigration
Maskileyson, D., & Semyonov, M. (2017) · Research in Social Stratification and Mobility · doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2017.06.003 · Cited by 7
van den Berg, C. J. W., Blommaert, L., Bijleveld, C. C. J. H., & Ruiter, S. (2017) · Tijdschrift voor Criminologie · doi:10.5553/tvc/0165182x2017059102007 · Cited by 7
Do Swiss Citizens of Immigrant Origin Face Hiring Discrimination in the Labour Market?
Zschirnt, E., & Fibbi, R. (2019) · reroDoc Digital Library · Cited by 7
Does persistence pay off? Accessing social activities with a foreign-sounding name
Dietl, H., Gómez‐González, C., Moretti, P., & Nesseler, C. (2020) · Applied Economics Letters · doi:10.1080/13504851.2020.1784381 · Cited by 7
“For example, Turkish-sounding names receive fewer call backs in the German labour market (Kaas and Manger 2012), as do homosexual couples in the Swedish housing market (Ahmed and Hammarstedt 2009), or foreigners when trying to join a social activity in Switzerland (Nesseler, Gomez-Gonzalez, and…”
BackgroundDrewski, D., & Tuppat, J. (2021) · Ethnicities · doi:10.1177/14687968211010764 · Cited by 7
Discrimination Against Migrants in Austria: An Experimental StudyPreprint
Weichselbaumer, D. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2672140 · Cited by 7
Measuring Hiring Discrimination A History of Field Experiments in Discrimination ResearchPreprint
Zschirnt, E. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2780398 · Cited by 7
“Next to Sweden and Norway, studies were, amongst others, also conducted in the UK (Wood et al., 2009), France (Duguet et al., 2010), Greece (Drydakis & Vlassis, 2010), Ireland (McGinnity & Lunn, 2011), Germany (Kaas & Manger, 2012), the Netherlands (Andriessen et al., 2012) or Austria (Weichselbaumer, 2015).”
InfluentialChowdhury, S., Ooi, E., & Slonim, R. L. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3596674 · Cited by 7
“5 2014; Bertrand and Mullainathan, 2004; Booth, Leigh, and Varganova, 2012;8 Carlsson and Rooth, 2007; Kaas and Manger, 2012; Oreopoulos, 2011; Pager, 2007; Pager, Western, and Bonikowski, 2009; Riach and Rich, 1991).9 In the context of the labour market, the decision by a minority job applicant…”
BackgroundOutsourcing Recruitment as a Solution to Prevent Discrimination: A Correspondence StudyPreprint
Berson, C., Laouénan, M., & Valat, E. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3390119 · Cited by 7
Banerjee, R., Reitz, J. G., & Oreopoulos, P. (2021) · doi:10.32920/ryerson.14638335 · Cited by 7
Discrimination in Universal Social Programs? A Nationwide Field Experiment on Access to Child CarePreprint
Hermes, H., Lergetporer, P., Mierisch, F., Peter, F., & Wiederhold, S. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4422843 · Cited by 8
“Past evidence also shows that persons with Turkish migration background are discriminated against on the German labor market (Kaas and Manger, 2012).”
BackgroundIdentity in Economics: A ReviewPreprint
Berg, A. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3421215 · Cited by 7
Disability discrimination in hiring: A systematic review
Schwitter, N., Chatzitheochari, S., & Liebe, U. (2025) · Research in Social Stratification and Mobility · doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2025.101069 · Cited by 10
Etnische discriminatie op de Nederlandse arbeidsmarkt
Thijssen, L., Coenders, M., & Lancee, B. (2019) · Mens en Maatschappij · doi:10.5117/mem2019.2.002.thij · Cited by 6
Incivility and danger: theorizing a Muslim undercaste in Europe
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Alyakoob, M., & Rahman, M. S. (2022) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2023.01717 · Cited by 7
Immigrant political incorporation
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“For Turkish families, such fears may contribute to the formation of realistic aspirations, as the Turkish group is exposed to actual discrimination (e.g., Kaas and Manger, 2012) and negative attitudes in the German context (e.g., Steinbach, 2004).”
BackgroundThe limits of tolerance: before and after Brexit and the German Refugee Crisis
Kromczyk, M., Khattab, N., & Abbas, T. (2021) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2021.1937670 · Cited by 6
“…structure or needing to search for employment in the labour market, where they face higher chances of being discriminated against than the majority population (Kaas and Manger 2012), are more likely to experience intolerance than unskilled workers who are participating in the labour market.”
BackgroundUne mesure expérimentale de la discrimination homme-femme à l'embauche
Larribeau, S., David Masclet, B., & Peterlé, E. (2013) · Revue d économie politique · doi:10.3917/redp.233.0333 · Cited by 6
Quelle efficacité pour le CV anonyme ? Les leçons d’une étude expérimentale
Lacroux, A., & Martin‐Lacroux, C. (2017) · Revue de gestion des ressources humaines · doi:10.3917/grhu.104.0061 · Cited by 6
Wachsende Armut in Deutschland und die These der Auflösung der Mittelschicht.
Verwiebe, R. (2010) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-92514-1_8 · Cited by 6
Constant, A. F., Krause-Pilatus, A., Rinne, U., & Zimmermann, K. F. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1735950 · Cited by 6
“Today’s second generation migrants are mostly the offspring 1Potential explanations are e.g. based on ethnic or institutional discrimination (Kaas and Manger, 2010; Kogan, 2007), on differences in ethnic or human capital (Kalter and Granato, 2007), and on concepts of ethnic identity (Heath et al.,…”
BackgroundImmigration, Social Networks and Occupational MismatchPreprint
Alaverdyan, S., & Zaharieva, A. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3369643 · Cited by 6
Gender Discrimination in Hiring: Evidence from an Audit Experiment in Uzbekistan
Muradova, S., & Seitz, W. (2021) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-9784 · Cited by 6
Discriminatory Lending: Evidence from Bankers in the Lab
Haas, R. D. (2022) · AEA Randomized Controlled Trials · doi:10.1257/rct.9025 · Cited by 6
Voices of Europe and Central Asia
Davalos, M. E., Demarchi, G., Santos, I. V., Kits, B., & Oral, I. (2016) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/25361 · Cited by 5
“3 Kaas and Manger (2012) for example, show how employer discrimination disappears in the hiring process in the presence of information and networks.”
BackgroundWhat does sociological research tell us about ethnic inequalities in European labour markets?
van Tubergen, F. (2024) · Oxford Open Economics · doi:10.1093/ooec/odad013 · Cited by 5
Dahl, M. (2022) · Journal of International Migration and Integration / Revue de l integration et de la migration internationale · doi:10.1007/s12134-021-00844-y · Cited by 5
“In a correspondence study in Germany, Kaas and Manger (2012) found that discrimination against Turkish job applicants was eliminated when a reference letter, containing indirect information about conscientiousness and agreeableness, was randomly included.”
BackgroundSachs, T., Homan, A. C., & Lancee, B. (2024) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.13047 · Cited by 5
Negative Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination
Cohrs, J. C., & Kessler, T. (2013) · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-27222-5_1 · Cited by 5
Take Your Time to Grow: A Field Experiment on the Hiring of Youths
Kübler, D. F., Stüber, R., & Schmid, J. (2019) · German Economic Review · doi:10.1111/geer.12188 · Cited by 5
Chance und Herausforderung: Diversity Management und CSR am Beispiel internationaler Unternehmen
Stehr, C., & Vodosek, M. (2017) · Management-Reihe Corporate Social Responsibility · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54087-9_9 · Cited by 5
Do EU Anti-discrimination Provisions Make a Difference?
Bernhard, S., & Bernhard, S. (2016) · Zeitschrift für Soziologie · doi:10.1515/zfsoz-2015-1003 · Cited by 5
“Other quasi-experimental and audit studies find disadvantages for minorities or migrants in other cities and countries (Kaas & Manger 2011; Midtboen 2014; Pager et al. 2009).”
BackgroundResultAssimilation over the Life Course? The Career Mobility of Second-Generation Turkish Men in Germany
Hartmann, J. (2016) · Zeitschrift für Soziologie · doi:10.1515/zfsoz-2015-1016 · Cited by 5
“On a final note, discrimination is a frequently discussed cause of ethnic labor-market disadvantages, and empirical research has provided some evidence of its negative effect on minorities’ labor-market outcomes in Germany (Kaas & Manger 2012).”
BackgroundHiring Discrimination in Racially Diverse Labour Markets:A Cross Country Study
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kaas, L., & Manger, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Konstanz (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Kaas, Leo
- Manger, Christian
- ORCID
- Manger, Christian
- Venue
- German Economic Review
- Publisher
- Walter de Gruyter GmbH
- Published
- 2012-02-01
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-20
- ISSN
- 1465-6485 (ISSN-L)
- 1468-0475
- OpenAlex
- W1906367169
- Cited by
- 509
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 86.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- German Economic Review (publishedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- ethnic discrimination, employment discrimination, correspondence test, name-based discrimination, callbacks, student internships, firm size, letters of recommendation, statistical discrimination, Germany
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