The DOI matches its Crossref record; 106 of the 107 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 126 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition
Open accessAbstract
Adolescence is a time of considerable development at the level of behaviour, cognition and the brain. This article reviews histological and brain imaging studies that have demonstrated specific changes in neural architecture during puberty and adolescence, outlining trajectories of grey and white matter development. The implications of brain development for executive functions and social cognition during puberty and adolescence are discussed. Changes at the level of the brain and cognition may map onto behaviours commonly associated with adolescence. Finally, possible applications for education and social policy are briefly considered.
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Claims the paper makes
54 No full text of the sources · 29 Own interpretation · 24 Sources not found · 16 Not checked yet · 6 No basis given · 3 Supported · 3 Supported so far
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“The gradual decrease in grey matter density that occurs after puberty in certain brain regions has been attributed to post-pubescent synaptic pruning (Giedd et al., 1999a;Sowell et al., 2001;Gogtay et al., 2004).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Non-linear decreases in grey matter during adolescence
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Giedd et al., 1999a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sowell et al., 2001 source
- Supportedcites Gogtay et al., 2004 source
The Abstract describes regional gray-matter density loss after puberty. The Discussion says the cause is unknown but explicitly proposes synaptic pruning as a possible partial explanation, matching the claim that the loss has been attributed to pruning. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Compared to adults, adolescents showed reduced recruitment of the right ventral striatum and right amygdala while anticipating responses for gains.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bjork et al., 2004 source
The paper’s opening summary (page not available) reports that adolescents showed less recruitment of the right ventral striatum and right-extended amygdala than young adults while anticipating responses for monetary gains versus nongains. The claim paraphrases this finding, though it shortens “right-extended amygdala” to “right amygdala.” (LLM, conf=0.93)
plainn = 12- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Supported
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In the paper
“Activation patterns during monetary gain notification did not differ between groups.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bjork et al., 2004 source
The paper states that brain activation after gain outcomes did not appreciably differ between adolescents and young adults. The Discussion also reports similar gain-notification responses in both groups, while distinguishing these from the group difference during gain anticipation. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plainn = 12- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Supported
In the paper
“A 10-20% increase in reaction time on the match-tosample task occurred at the onset of puberty in the 10-11-year-old group of girls and in the 11-12-yearold group of boys, compared to the previous year group of each sex (age 9-10 and 10-11 in girls and boys, respectively) (see Figure 4).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McGivern et al., 2002 source
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In the paper
“After puberty, from age 13-14, performance improved until it returned to the pre-pubescent level by the age of about 16-17 years.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McGivern et al., 2002 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The results suggest that there is a dip in performance on this kind of task at the onset of puberty.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McGivern et al., 2002 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The corpus callosum, the dense mass of fibres that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, has also been found to undergo region-specific growth during adolescence and up until the mid-twenties (Barnea-Goraly et al., 2005;Giedd et al., 1999b;Pujol, Vendrell, Junque, Marti, & Josep, 1993).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Linear increases in white matter during adolescence
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The studies on post-mortem brain development suggest that development of cognitive processes associated with the frontal lobes may well continue throughout adolescence.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > The first experiments on adolescent brains
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In the paper
“However, synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex have a rather different time course.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > The first experiments on adolescent brains
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Histological studies of monkey and human prefrontal cortex have shown that there is a proliferation of synapses in the subgranular layers of the prefrontal cortex during childhood and again at puberty, followed by a plateau phase and a subsequent elimination and reorganisation of prefrontal synaptic connections after puberty (Huttenlocher, 1979;Bourgeois, Goldman-Rakic, & Rakic, 1994;Woo, Pucak, K”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > The first experiments on adolescent brains
What the sources say
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 32
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In addition to executive functions, there is evidence that the prefrontal cortex is involved in several other high-level cognitive capacities, including self-awareness (Ochsner, 2004) and theory of mind (Frith & Frith, 2003)”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of social cognition
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ochsner, 2004 source
- Supportedcites Frith & Frith, 2003 source
The opening summary states that the medial prefrontal cortex is consistently activated during mentalizing (theory-of-mind) tasks. In the citing sentence, Frith and Frith (2003) is attached to theory of mind; self-awareness is attributed to a different source. (LLM, conf=0.94)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In terms of grey matter density, they found that sensory and motor brain regions matured first.This was followed by the remainder of the cortex maturing from the back to the front (parietal cortex to frontal cortex).The loss of grey matter occurred last in the superior temporal cortex.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Non-linear decreases in grey matter during adolescence
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gogtay et al. (2004) source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plainn = 13- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“The amygdala has consistently been associated with emotion processing (Dolan, 2002;Phillips, Drevets, Rauch, & Lane, 2003).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of social cognition in the brain
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Dolan, 2002 source
The S C I E N C E ' S C O M P A S S section describes accumulating evidence that the amygdala mediates emotional influences on perception. The Conclusions also include the amygdala among brain structures that mediate emotion, supporting the broad association in the claim. Page numbers are not supplied in the provided passages. (LLM, conf=0.94)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Phillips et al., 2003 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Supported
In the paper
“This transition from childhood to adulthood is also characterised by dramatic changes in identity, self-consciousness and cognitive flexibility (Rutter & Rutter, 1993).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rutter & Rutter, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“The results showed a higher volume of white matter in the frontal cortex and parietal cortex in the older children than in the younger group.The younger group, by contrast, had a higher volume of grey matter in the same regions.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Linear increases in white matter during adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sowell et al., 1999 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and in light of histological studies, this has consistently been interpreted as reflecting continued axonal myelination during childhood and adolescence.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Linear increases in white matter during adolescence
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Individual growth patterns revealed heterochronous grey matter development during adolescence.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Non-linear decreases in grey matter during adolescence
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Giedd et al. (1999a)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainn = 145- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The quote only partly states this claim.
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In the paper
“The volume of grey matter in the frontal lobe increased during pre-adolescence with a peak occurring at around 12 years for males and 11 years for females.This was followed by a decline during post-adolescence.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Non-linear decreases in grey matter during adolescence
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Giedd et al. (1999a)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectn = 145- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to these data, synaptic pruning occurs throughout adolescence and results in a net decrease in synaptic density in the frontal lobes during this time.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > The first experiments on adolescent brains
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas sensory and motor brain regions become fully myelinated in the first few years of life, although the volume of brain tissue remains stable, axons in the frontal cortex continue to be myelinated well into adolescence (Yakovlev & Lecours, 1967).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > The first experiments on adolescent brains
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Yakovlev & Lecours, 1967
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, rather than a simple linear change in grey matter with age, studies suggest perturbation in grey matter density development that more or less coincides with the onset of puberty.At puberty, grey matter volume in the frontal lobe reaches a peak, followed by a plateau after puberty and then a decline throughout adolescence continuing until early adulthood.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Non-linear decreases in grey matter during adolescence
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Luna et al., for example, showed that performance on an oculomotor task undergoes a large improvement from childhood to adolescence, followed by a plateau between adolescence and early adulthood (Luna et al., 2004a).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Luna et al., 2004a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Only later, after puberty, are the excess synapses pruned into specialised, efficient networks which may explain the post-pubescent improvement on this table (McGivern et al., 2002).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McGivern et al., 2002 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In other words, the increase in grey matter at puberty reflects a sudden increase in the number of synapses.At some point after puberty, there is a process of refinement such that these excess synapses are eliminated (Huttenlocher, 1979), resulting in a steady decline in grey matter density.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Non-linear decreases in grey matter during adolescence
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Huttenlocher, 1979
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“The results revealed a reduction in grey matter density in the dorsal prefrontal, parietal and temporal cortices, which was accompanied by an increase in white matter.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Brain changes continue after adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sowell et al., 2003 source
plaincorrelationaln = 176- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accumulating new social experiences, for example, when entering a new school, may influence the development of social cognitive processes.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of social cognition
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, in a longitudinal study, it was found that boys had 10% greater total cortical grey matter volume than girls, but that developmental trajectories of grey and white matter volume were not significantly different (Giedd et al., 1999a).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Gender differences in development of brain structure
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Giedd et al., 1999a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“In the older group (11 to 15 years) a localised grey matter decrease in the frontal cortex was observed.This study provided further evidence of a sharp acceleration of grey matter density loss between childhood and adolescence in dorsal frontal cortex.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Non-linear decreases in grey matter during adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Thompson et al. (2000) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A significant age-related increase in white matter volume in the left IFG was found in boys but no significant volumetric changes were found in girls in any frontal regions (see Figure 3).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Gender differences in development of brain structure
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Blanton et al., 2004 source
plainn = 46- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A significant improvement in both the efficiency and quality of strategies was found between the ages of 6 and 10.However, between the ages of 10 and 14, there was no significant change in performance.The adult group (mean age 25), on the other hand, significantly outperformed the children.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mackinlay, Charman, & Karmiloff-Smith, 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The authors therefore suggested that prospective memory continues to develop during adolescence, in line with the notion of frontal maturation in the brain.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mackinlay, Charman, & Karmiloff-Smith, 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The main changes that have been observed are a non-linear reduction in frontal grey matter density and a simultaneous linear increase in white matter.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Brain changes continue after adolescence
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Prospective memory is associated with frontal lobe activity (Burgess, Veitch, Costello, & Shallice, 2000) and has been shown to develop through childhood as we develop our future-oriented thought and action (Ellis & Kvavilashvili, 2000).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Burgess, Veitch, Costello, & Shallice, 2000 source
- Not matchedcites Ellis & Kvavilashvili, 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Improvement during adolescence was observed on tasks of selective attention, working memory and problem solving, whereas strategic behaviour, as tested by the Tower of London task (Shallice, 1982), seemed to have been formed earlier in childhood.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shallice, 1982 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, sensitive periods for learning phonemes of one's mother tongue occur in the first six months of life (Kuhl et al., 1992)”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kuhl et al., 1992 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The results of this study revealed that children performed worse on the task and had on average 60% greater activation in the left inferior frontal cortex and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex than did adults.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gaillard et al., 2000 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“fMRI data revealed age-related increases in activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus extending to the orbitofrontal cortex and, consistent with Casey et al.'s results, age-related decreases in activation in both the left superior and middle frontal gyrus extending to the cingulate.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tamm, Menon, & Reiss, 2002 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results demonstrated a dissociation between prefrontal areas in the development of inhibitory control and a negative correlation between age and brain activation.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If one group's task performance is worse than that of the other group, then any difference in brain activity between the two groups is difficult to interpret.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Confounding effects of task performance
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Thus the activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex could be negatively correlated with behavioural performance (as interpreted from error rates), as distinct from the orbitofrontal cortex whose activation increased with improvement in behavioural performance.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Casey et al., 1997 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Much of the literature has focused on early development of facial recognition (Nelson, 1987).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of social cognition in the brain
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nelson, 1987 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“While there was no difference in accuracy on the task with age, reaction times to inhibit responses successfully significantly decreased with age.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tamm, Menon, & Reiss, 2002 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“On the other hand, adolescents showed greater activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during the 'not good' ideas and there was a significant correlation between DLPFC activation and reaction time.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Baird, Fugelsang, & Bennett, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In particular, recognition of fear and disgust showed the greatest linear improvements with age, while there was no improvement in the ability to recognise sad and angry expressions in this age range.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Perspective taking
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lawrence et al., submitted
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelationaln = 484- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“However, this was followed by a decline around the age of puberty.Between ages 10 and 12, participants showed a drop in accuracy of over 10%.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Perspective taking
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Carey et al., 1980 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While the location of activation was essentially the same for both age groups, there was a significantly higher volume of prefrontal activation in children than in adults, specifically in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and extending into the cingulate.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Viewing the adolescent brain in action with fMRI
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Casey et al., 1997 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Recognition of facial expressions of emotion is one area of social cognition that has been investigated during adolescence (see Herba & Phillips, 2004).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of social cognition in the brain
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Herba & Phillips, 2004 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One remaining issue is the confounding effect of task performance differences in fMRI studies.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Confounding effects of task performance
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this paper, we have focused on research in developmental cognitive neuroscience, but a richer account of changes in adolescent learning, and strategic and social behaviour requires a multidisciplinary approach that recognises the complex interactions between genetics, brain structure, physiology and chemistry and the environment.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The finding that changes in brain structure continue into adolescence and early adulthood challenged accepted views and has given rise to a recent spate of investigations into the way cognition might change as a consequence.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These fMRI results suggest that both the brain's emotion processing and cognitive appraisal systems develop during adolescence.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of social cognition in the brain
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The finding that changes in brain structure continue into adolescence and early adulthood challenged accepted views and has given rise to a recent spate of investigations into the way cognition might change as a consequence.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Neither of these studies contained an adult or a younger child group, so comparisons before and after puberty of the neural processing of facial emotion could not be made.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of social cognition in the brain
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studying the development of adolescent cognition using complementary in vivo methods that exploit the advantages of each -such as combining fMRI with electroencephalography (EEG) or diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) -within a theoretical framework that regards motor, affective, social and perceptual functions as intertwined promises to further inform our understanding of typical and atypical”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Longitudinal studies of the effect of early deprivation on the cognitive development of Romanian adoptees in the UK have begun to investigate this question (O'Connor & Rutter, 2000).”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Implications for teenagers
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites O'Connor & Rutter, 2000 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, there was no exploration of how age affects emotion expression processing.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of social cognition in the brain
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The study of the development of executive function and social cognition beyond childhood is a new but rapidly evolving field with applications for medical diagnosis, education and social policy.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Myelin acts as an insulator and massively increases the speed of transmission (up to 100 fold) of electrical impulses from neuron to neuron.
“Myelin acts as an insulator and massively increases the speed of transmission (up to 100 fold) of electrical impulses from neuron to neuron.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Synaptic pruning is essential for the fine-tuning of functional networks of brain tissue, rendering the remaining synaptic circuits more efficient.
“Synaptic pruning is believed to be essential for the fine-tuning of functional networks of brain tissue, rendering the remaining synaptic circuits more efficient.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Synaptic pruning underlies sound categorisation.
“Synaptic pruning is thought to underlie sound categorisation, for example.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Very few studies have addressed the effect of puberty and adolescence on social cognitive abilities.
“So far, very few studies have addressed the effect of puberty and adolescence on social cognitive abilities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There has been a lack of attention to the development of social cognition during adolescence.
“So far there has been a lack of attention to the development of social cognition during adolescence.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Relatively little is known about the continued development of emotion processing during adolescence.
“Relatively little is known about the continued development of emotion processing during adolescence.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Adolescents are renowned for engaging in risky behaviour.
“Adolescents are renowned for engaging in risky behaviour.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Anecdotally, adolescents are known to be poor at decision-making, especially when risk is involved.
“Anecdotally, adolescents are known to be poor at decision-making, especially when risk is involved.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There are major changes in hormones at puberty.
“In addition to neural development, there are major changes in hormones at puberty.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Current theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of criminal law are grounded in the principle of autonomy.
“Current theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of criminal law are grounded in the principle of autonomy: individuals are regarded as rational autonomous human beings who can 'choose' their actions and are therefore held responsible by criminal law.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“young people may be less cognitively skilled in managing the diverse messages from multiple sources during this time of development (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006).”
From Cultural Socialization Across Contexts: Family–Peer Congruence and Adolescent Well-Being (2016) · cites this paper as Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition to the well-known hormonal fluctuations that occur during adolescence, the brain undergoes vast re-shaping, including pruning, myelination, volumetric changes in various regions and changes in functional connectivity (Blakemore, 2012;Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006;Casey et al., 2008;Spear, 2000) (Fig. 3).”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Over time, relationships also shape the cognitive and neurobiological networks that support social and executive functioning”
From Improving relationship quality in group care settings: The impact of implementing the CARE model (2020) · cites this paper as Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Executive functions such as working memory, attention and response inhibition, continue to mature until late adolescence (Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006, Casey et al., 2008).”
From Weaknesses in executive functioning predict the initiating of adolescents' alcohol use (2015) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006
In the citing paper
“The combined effect of these maturational processes might be to fine-tune neural circuitry in the PFC and other cortical regions, and thus increase efficiency of the cognitive systems they subserve (see Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006 for review).”
From Social cognitive development during adolescence (2006) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006
In the citing paper
“Prior studies in children, adolescents and adults have consistently linked differences in cortical structure, morphology, and morphometry to differences in measures of cognitive and behavioral performance.”
From Quantifying cortical development in typically developing toddlers and young children, 1–6 years of age (2017) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006
In the citing paper
“This decline in volume is due to a 'reorganization' of synaptic connections (Blakemore and Choudhury, 1999)”
From Impaired Extinction Retention in Adolescent Rats: Effects of D-Cycloserine (2010) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 1999
In the citing paper
“and (2) undergoes substantial restructuring during adolescence (Blakemore and Choudhury, 1999), to the point that it might even be seen as a 'natural lesion'.”
From Impaired Extinction Retention in Adolescent Rats: Effects of D-Cycloserine (2010) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is now clear that brain development does not stop with the completion of puberty when adult brain size is attained. Brain maturation continues beyond adolescence, extending until around age 25 years, and this recently discovered prolongation provides critical support for emerging adulthood as a post-adolescent maturational stage (22).”
From Emerging Adulthood, a Pre-adult Life-History Stage (2020) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“It is now clear that brain development does not stop with the completion of puberty when adult brain size is attained. Brain maturation continues beyond adolescence, extending until around age 25 years, and this recently discovered prolongation provides critical support for emerging adulthood as a post-adolescent maturational stage (22).”
From Emerging Adulthood, a Pre-adult Life-History Stage (2020) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“It is now clear that brain development does not stop with the completion of puberty when adult brain size is attained. Brain maturation continues beyond adolescence, extending until around age 25 years, and this recently discovered prolongation provides critical support for emerging adulthood as a post-adolescent maturational stage (22).”
From Emerging Adulthood, a Pre-adult Life-History Stage (2020) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“behavioral studies show that performance on tasks including inhibitory control, decision making and processing speed continue to develop during adolescence.”
From Impulsivity, frontal lobes and risk for addiction (2009) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006
In the citing paper
“During adolescence tasks of selective attention, working memory and problem solving improve, consistent with frontal cortical synaptic pruning and myelination improving performance (Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006).”
From Impulsivity, frontal lobes and risk for addiction (2009) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006
In the citing paper
“These studies support the concept that the immature brain has more extensive and less efficient frontal activation and lower performance compared to adults, who have a more focused pattern of frontal activation, faster reaction times, and better performance (Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006).”
From Impulsivity, frontal lobes and risk for addiction (2009) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006
In the citing paper
“During adolescence tasks of selective attention, working memory and problem solving improve, consistent with frontal cortical synaptic pruning and myelination improving performance (Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006).”
From Impulsivity, frontal lobes and risk for addiction (2009) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006
In the citing paper
“Recent findings have shown significant correlations between regional patterns of structural brain change and cognitive development (Gogtay et al. 2004;Sowell et al. 2004;Blakemore and Choudhury 2006;Shaw et al. 2006;Tamnes et al. 2010aTamnes et al. , 2010b)).”
From Imaging Patterns of Brain Development and their Relationship to Cognition (2015) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury 2006
In the citing paper
“Adolescence is also a critical time period for neuroanatomical change and maturation, which translates into behavioral development, including cognitive function, social cognition, and executive function (285, 286).”
From Diet and the Microbiota–Gut–Brain Axis: Sowing the Seeds of Good Mental Health (2021) · cites this paper as [285]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
“The task was given to a large group of children aged 10 to 17 years and a group of young adults aged 18 to 22 years.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > Development of executive function
“compared to the previous year group of each sex (age 9-10 and 10-11 in girls and boys, respectively)”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > References
“Giedd, J.N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N.O., Castellanos, F.X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., Paus, T., Evans, A.C., & Rapoport, J.L. (1999a). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 861-863.”
§ Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition > References
“Paus, T., Evans, A.C., & Rapoport, J.L. (1999b). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 861- 863.”
Citations
Cites
Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat’s visual cortex
Hubel, D. H., & Wiesel, T. N. (1962) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1962.sp006837 · Cited by 13,680
Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., Nugent, T. F., Herman, D. H., Clasen, L. S., Toga, A. W., et al. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0402680101 · Cited by 5,604 · cited 2×
“The gradual decrease in grey matter density that occurs after puberty in certain brain regions has been attributed to post-pubescent synaptic pruning (Giedd et al., 1999a; Sowell et al., 2001; Gogtay et al., 2004).”
BackgroundBrain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study
Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., Paus, T., Evans, A. C., & Rapoport, J. L. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/13158 · Cited by 5,552
Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions
Rizzolatti, G., Fadiga, L., Gallese, V., & Fogassi, L. (1996) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0926-6410(95)00038-0 · Cited by 4,870
Specific impairments of planning
Shallice, T. (1982) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1982.0082 · Cited by 3,741
Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the understanding and imitation of action
Rizzolatti, G., Fogassi, L., & Gallese, V. (2001) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35090060 · Cited by 3,302
Mirror neurons and the simulation theory of mind-reading
Gallese, V (1998) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(98)01262-5 · Cited by 3,201
At the Threshold: The Developing Adolescent
Feldman, S. S., & Elliott, G. R. (1990) · Cited by 3,136
A self‐report measure of pubertal status: Reliability, validity and initial norms
Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L., Richards, M., & Boxer, A. (1988) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/bf01537962 · Cited by 3,129
Higher cortical functions in man
Lurii︠a︡, A. R., Teuber, H., Pribram, K. H., & Haigh, B. (1966) · Basic Books · Cited by 2,858
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- Baird A., 2005, What were you thinking: An fMRI study of adolescent decision‐making
- Coleman J.C., 1990, The nature of adolescence
- Harris P., 1995, Folk psychology, 207
- Mackinlay R., 2003, Remembering to remember: A developmental study of prospective memory in a multitasking paradigm
- Paus T., 1999, Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study, Nature Neuroscience, 2, 861, 10.1038/13158 · DOI · Paper page
- Rutter M., 1993, Developing minds
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Cryan, J. F., O'Riordan, K. J., Cowan, C. S. M., Sandhu, K. V., Bastiaanssen, T. F. S., Boehme, M., Codagnone, M. G., Cussotto, S., Fulling, C., Golubeva, A. V., et al. (2019) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00018.2018 · Cited by 5,286
Mental health of young people: A global public-health challenge
Patel, V., Flisher, A. J., Hetrick, S., & McGorry, P. (2007) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(07)60368-7 · Cited by 3,126
McCutcheon, R. A., Reis Marques, T., & Howes, O. D. (2020) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3360 · Cited by 1,481
Beyond Homophily: A Decade of Advances in Understanding Peer Influence Processes
Brechwald, W. A., & Prinstein, M. J. (2011) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00721.x · Cited by 1,510
Importance of investing in adolescence from a developmental science perspective
Dahl, R. E., Allen, N. B., Wilbrecht, L., & Suleiman, A. B. (2018) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature25770 · Cited by 1,196
Metadata
- Authors
- Blakemore, S., & Choudhury, S.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Blakemore, Sarah‐Jayne
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2006-02-22
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 3-4
- Pages
- 296-312
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W2150432411
- Cited by
- 2,328
- References
- 107
- Citations by year
- 2026: 104 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 141 · 2023: 130 · 2022: 134 · 2021: 134 · 2020: 185 · 2019: 185 · 2018: 147 · 2017: 138 · 2016: 157 · 2015: 136 · 2014: 137 · 2013: 120 · 2012: 84
- FWCI
- 3.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Keywords
- adolescent brain development, puberty, executive function, social cognition, white matter development, neural architecture, adolescence, social policy
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Brain, Cognition, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Social Perception
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Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
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