Vitamin C. Biosynthesis, recycling and degradation in mammals

Linster, Carole L.; Van Schaftingen, Emile

doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05607.x

Cited by 792Vitamin C and Antioxidants ResearchAntioxidant Activity and Oxidative StressRedox biology and oxidative stress

Vitamin C. Biosynthesis, recycling and degradation in mammals

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Linster, Carole L., Van Schaftingen, Emile·2007·The FEBS Journal

DOI 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05607.x

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Abstract

Vitamin C, a reducing agent and antioxidant, is a cofactor in reactions catalyzed by Cu(+)-dependent monooxygenases and Fe(2+)-dependent dioxygenases. It is synthesized, in vertebrates having this capacity, from d-glucuronate. The latter is formed through direct hydrolysis of uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucuronate by enzyme(s) bound to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, sharing many properties with, and most likely identical to, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases. Non-glucuronidable xenobiotics (aminopyrine, metyrapone, chloretone and others) stimulate the enzymatic hydrolysis of UDP-glucuronate, accounting for their effect to increase vitamin C formation in vivo. Glucuronate is converted to l-gulonate by aldehyde reductase, an enzyme of the aldo-keto reductase superfamily. l-Gulonate is converted to l-gulonolactone by a lactonase identified as SMP30 or regucalcin, whose absence in mice leads to vitamin C deficiency. The last step in the pathway of vitamin C synthesis is the oxidation of l-gulonolactone to l-ascorbic acid by l-gulonolactone oxidase, an enzyme associated with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and deficient in man, guinea pig and other species due to mutations in its gene. Another fate of glucuronate is its conversion to d-xylulose in a five-step pathway, the pentose pathway, involving identified oxidoreductases and an unknown decarboxylase. Semidehydroascorbate, a major oxidation product of vitamin C, is reconverted to ascorbate in the cytosol by cytochrome b(5) reductase and thioredoxin reductase in reactions involving NADH and NADPH, respectively. Transmembrane electron transfer systems using ascorbate or NADH as electron donors serve to reduce semidehydroascorbate present in neuroendocrine secretory vesicles and in the extracellular medium. Dehydroascorbate, the fully oxidized form of vitamin C, is reduced spontaneously by glutathione, as well as enzymatically in reactions using glutathione or NADPH. The degradation of vitamin C in mammals is initiated by the hydrolysis of dehydroascorbate to 2,3-diketo-l-gulonate, which is spontaneously degraded to oxalate, CO(2) and l-erythrulose. This is at variance with bacteria such as Escherichia coli, which have enzymatic degradation pathways for ascorbate and probably also dehydroascorbate.

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Synthesis of vitamin C has been documented in all plant species, including algae and photosynthetic protists.
“So far, the synthesis of vitamin C was documented in all plant species, including algae and photosynthetic protists [1].”
From Vitamin C-Sources, Physiological Role, Kinetics, Deficiency, Use, Toxicity, and Determination (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
Humans are fully dependent on vitamin C intake from the diet.
“They are, therefore, fully dependent on vitamin C intake from the diet [1,2,3].”
From Vitamin C-Sources, Physiological Role, Kinetics, Deficiency, Use, Toxicity, and Determination (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
Humans and several other species (guinea pigs, bats, passeriform birds, and primates) lack L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase and cannot synthesize vitamin C.
“In contrast to most of the vertebrates, guinea pigs, bats, passeriform birds, and primates, including humans, lack L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase, and, hence, cannot synthesize vitamin C.”
From Vitamin C-Sources, Physiological Role, Kinetics, Deficiency, Use, Toxicity, and Determination (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
The pKa of ascorbic acid is 4.1-4.2, so it is present completely as a monoanion-ascorbate-at physiological pH.
“The pKa of ascorbic acid is 4.1–4.2. Hence, it is present completely as a monoanion—ascorbate at the physiological pH [1,2,4,68].”
From Vitamin C-Sources, Physiological Role, Kinetics, Deficiency, Use, Toxicity, and Determination (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
2,3-diketo-1-gulonic acid can be spontaneously and enzymatically decomposed to erythrulose and oxalate, and this reaction is accelerated by bicarbonate.
“2,3-diketo-1-gulonic acid can be spontaneously, but also enzymatically, decomposed to erythrulose and oxalate. This reaction is accelerated by bicarbonate [1,3].”
From Vitamin C-Sources, Physiological Role, Kinetics, Deficiency, Use, Toxicity, and Determination (2021) · cites this paper as [1]

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Correspondence
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Ascorbic acid: Chemistry, biology and the treatment of cancer
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The Aldo-Keto Reductase Superfamily and its Role in Drug Metabolism and Detoxification
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Direct and indirect antioxidant properties of inducers of cytoprotective proteins
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Interplay between Metabolism and Epigenetics: A Nuclear Adaptation to Environmental Changes
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Individual variability in human blood metabolites identifies age-related differences
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The Genetics of Vitamin C Loss in Vertebrates
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Chemistry and biochemistry of 13 C hyperpolarized magnetic resonance using dynamic nuclear polarization
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The role of antioxidants in sperm freezing: a review
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Male infertility testing: reactive oxygen species and antioxidant capacity
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Vitamin C in Plants: From Functions to Biofortification
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Regulation of the epigenome by vitamin C
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Ascorbate as seen through plant evolution: the rise of a successful molecule?
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Two Endoplasmic Reticulum PDI Peroxidases Increase the Efficiency of the Use of Peroxide during Disulfide Bond Formation
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Vitamin C in Health and Disease: Its Role in the Metabolism of Cells and Redox State in the Brain
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The active role of vitamin C in mammalian iron metabolism: Much more than just enhanced iron absorption!
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Plant-Derived Natural Antioxidants in Meat and Meat Products
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The Roles and Mechanisms of Actions of Vitamin C in Bone: New Developments
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Antioxidants in Translational Medicine
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Vitamin C increases viral mimicry induced by 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine
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Antioxidant supplements and semen parameters: An evidence based review
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Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) as a Cosmeceutical to Increase Dermal Collagen for Skin Antiaging Purposes: Emerging Combination Therapies
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Dietary vitamin C in human health
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Metabolic biomarkers related to oxidative stress and antioxidant status in Saudi autistic children
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Human Cortex Spheroid with a Functional Blood Brain Barrier for High-Throughput Neurotoxicity Screening and Disease Modeling
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Oxidative stress and aging: Is methylglyoxal the hidden enemy?This review is one of a selection of papers published in a Special Issue on Oxidative Stress in Health and Disease.
Desai, K. M., Chang, T., Wang, H., Banigesh, A., Dhar, A., Liu, J., Untereiner, A. A., & Wu, L. (2010) · Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1139/y10-001 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
l-Ascorbate biosynthesis in higher plants: the role of VTC2
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Micronutritional approaches to periodontal therapy
Van der Velden, U., Kuzmanova, D., & Chapple, I. L. C. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Periodontology · doi:10.1111/j.1600-051x.2010.01663.x · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Vitamin C in stem cell reprogramming and cancer
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In defence of ferroptosis
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Cellular pathways for transport and efflux of ascorbate and dehydroascorbate
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Hyperpolarized [1-13C]-Ascorbic and Dehydroascorbic Acid: Vitamin C as a Probe for Imaging Redox Status in Vivo
Bohndiek, S. E., Kettunen, M. I., Hu, D., Kennedy, B. W. C., Boren, J., Gallagher, F. A., & Brindle, K. M. (2011) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja2045925 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Potential Mechanisms of Action for Vitamin C in Cancer: Reviewing the Evidence
Vissers, M. C. M., & Das, A. B. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.00809 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
The Gel State of the Vitreous and Ascorbate-Dependent Oxygen Consumption
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Evolution of alternative biosynthetic pathways for vitamin C following plastid acquisition in photosynthetic eukaryotes
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Vitamin C Is an Essential Factor on the Anti-viral Immune Responses through the Production of Interferon-α/β at the Initial Stage of Influenza A Virus (H3N2) Infection
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Arabidopsis VTC2 Encodes a GDP-l-Galactose Phosphorylase, the Last Unknown Enzyme in the Smirnoff-Wheeler Pathway to Ascorbic Acid in Plants
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Antioxidant Defenses in the ocular surface
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Vitamin C: a wound healing perspective
Moores, J. (2013) · British Journal of Community Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjcn.2013.18.sup12.s6 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for vitamin C
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The Long History of Vitamin C: From Prevention of the Common Cold to Potential Aid in the Treatment of COVID-19
Cerullo, G., Negro, M., Parimbelli, M., Pecoraro, M., Perna, S., Liguori, G., Rondanelli, M., Cena, H., & D’Antona, G. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.574029 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Determination of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrochemical detection
Gazdik, Z., Zitka, O., Petrlova, J., Adam, V., Zehnalek, J., Horna, A., Reznicek, V., Beklova, M., & Kizek, R. (2008) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s8117097 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Hepatitis C Virus-Linked Mitochondrial Dysfunction Promotes Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1α-Mediated Glycolytic Adaptation
Ripoli, M. C., D’Aprile, A., Quarato, G., Sinnreich, M. F., Gouttenoire, J., Scrima, R., Cela, O., Boffoli, D., Heim, M. H., Moradpour, D., et al. (2009) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.00769-09 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Vitamin C and Cardiovascular Disease: An Update
Morelli, M. B., Gambardella, J., Castellanos, V., Trimarco, V., & Santulli, G. (2020) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox9121227 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Vitamin C and the Role of Citrus Juices as Functional Food
Martí, N., Mena, P. R., Cánovas, J. A., Micol, V., & Saura, D. (2009) · Natural Product Communications · doi:10.1177/1934578x0900400506 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Ascorbate as a co-factor for Fe- and 2-oxoglutarate dependent dioxygenases: Physiological activity in tumor growth and progression
Kuiper, C., & Vissers, M. C. M. (2014) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2014.00359 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Plants need their vitamins too
Smith, A. G., Croft, M. T., Moulin, M., & Webb, M. E. (2007) · Current Opinion in Plant Biology · doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2007.04.009 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Hyperpolarized 13 C dehydroascorbate as an endogenous redox sensor for in vivo metabolic imaging
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Halal Cosmetics: A Review on Ingredients, Production, and Testing Methods
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Role of Food Antioxidants in Modulating Gut Microbial Communities: Novel Understandings in Intestinal Oxidative Stress Damage and Their Impact on Host Health
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Dietary antioxidants and oxidative stress from a human and plant perspective: a review.
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Elevating optimal human nutrition to a central goal of plant breeding and production of plant-based foods
Sands, D. C., Morris, C. E., Dratz, E. A., & Pilgeram, A. L. (2009) · Plant Science · doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.07.011 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Duodenal Cytochrome b (DCYTB) in Iron Metabolism: An Update on Function and Regulation
Lane, D. J. R., Bae, D.-H., Merlot, A. M., Sahni, S., & Richardson, D. R. (2015) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu7042274 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Regulation of vitamin C homeostasis during deficiency
Lindblad, M., Tveden-Nyborg, P., & Lykkesfeldt, J. (2013) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu5082860 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
VTC4 Is a Bifunctional Enzyme That Affects Myoinositol and Ascorbate Biosynthesis in Plants
Torabinejad, J., Donahue, J. L., Gunesekera, B., Allen-Daniels, M. J., & Gillaspy, G. E. (2009) · PLANT PHYSIOLOGY · doi:10.1104/pp.108.135129 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Ascorbic acid encapsulated into negatively charged liposomes exhibits increased skin permeation, retention and enhances collagen synthesis by fibroblasts
Maione-Silva, L., de Castro, E. G., Nascimento, T. L., Cintra, E. R., Moreira, L. C., Cintra, B. A. S., Valadares, M. C., & Lima, E. M. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36682-9 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Contrasting Cu, Fe, and Zn isotopic patterns in organs and body fluids of mice and sheep, with emphasis on cellular fractionation
Balter, V., Lamboux, A., Zazzo, A., Télouk, P., Leverrier, Y., Marvel, J., MOLONEY, A. P., Monahan, F. J., Schmidt, O., & Albarède, F. (2013) · Metallomics · doi:10.1039/c3mt00151b · Cited by 144 · see citing works
A “forward genomics” approach links genotype to phenotype using independent phenotypic losses among related species
Hiller, M., Schaar, B. T., Indjeian, V. B., Kingsley, D. M., Hagey, L. R., & Bejerano, G. (2012) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2012.08.032 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Over-expression of strawberry d-galacturonic acid reductase in potato leads to accumulation of vitamin C with enhanced abiotic stress tolerance
Hemavathi, Upadhyaya, C. P., Young, K. E., Nookaraju, A., Kim, H. S., Heung, J. J., Oh, O. M., Aswath, C. R., Chun, S. C., Kim, D. H., et al. (2009) · Plant Science · doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.08.004 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Old Things New View: Ascorbic Acid Protects the Brain in Neurodegenerative Disorders
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Bioactive Compounds in Mango (Mangifera indica L.)
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Industrial Production of l-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) and d-Isoascorbic Acid
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Vitamin C in Stem Cell Biology: Impact on Extracellular Matrix Homeostasis and Epigenetics
D’Aniello, C., Cermola, F., Patriarca, E. J., & Minchiotti, G. (2017) · Stem Cells International · doi:10.1155/2017/8936156 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Ascorbate Tumor Chemotherapy by An Iron-Engineered Nanomedicine-Catalyzed Tumor-Specific Pro-Oxidation
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Vitamin C transporters
Rivas, C. I., Zuñiga, F. A., Salas-Burgos, A., Mardones, L., Ormazábal, V., & Vera, J. C. (2008) · Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1007/bf03174092 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Nonenzymatic Exogenous and Endogenous Antioxidants
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Vitamin C in the Treatment of COVID-19
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Ascorbic acid intake and oxalate synthesis
Knight, J. L., Madduma-Liyanage, K., Mobley, J. A., Assimos, D. G., & Holmes, R. P. (2016) · Urolithiasis · doi:10.1007/s00240-016-0868-7 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Endoplasmic Reticulum Thiol Oxidase Deficiency Leads to Ascorbic Acid Depletion and Noncanonical Scurvy in Mice
Zito, E., Hansen, H. G., Yeo, G. S. H., Fujii, J., & Ron, D. (2012) · Molecular Cell · doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2012.08.010 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
The Biochemistry and Effectiveness of Antioxidants in Food, Fruits, and Marine Algae
Pruteanu, L.-L., Bailey, D. S., Grădinaru, A. C., & Jäntschi, L. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12040860 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Vitamin C restores healthy aging in a mouse model for Werner syndrome
Massip, L., Garand, C., Paquet, É. R., Cogger, V. C., O'Reilly, J. N., Tworek, L., Hatherell, A., Taylor, C. G., Thorin, É., Zahradka, P. C., et al. (2009) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.09-137133 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Myths, Artifacts, and Fatal Flaws: Identifying Limitations and Opportunities in Vitamin C Research
Michels, A., & Frei, B. (2013) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu5125161 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Induction of Phase 2 Antioxidant Enzymes by Broccoli Sulforaphane: Perspectives in Maintaining the Antioxidant Activity of Vitamins A, C, and E
Boddupalli, S. S., Mein, J. R., Lakkanna, S., & James, D. R. (2012) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2012.00007 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Strategies to increase vitamin C in plants: from plant defense perspective to food biofortification
Locato, V., Cimini, S., & Gara, L. D. (2013) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2013.00152 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Oxalate in renal stone disease: the terminal metabolite that just won't go away
Marengo, S. R., & Romani, A. M. (2008) · Nature Clinical Practice Nephrology · doi:10.1038/ncpneph0845 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Ascorbate Synthesis Pathway
Gabbay, K. H., Bohren, K. M., Morello, R., Bertin, T., Liu, J., & Vogel, P. (2010) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m110.110247 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Epigenetic Regulation of Genomic Stability by Vitamin C
Brabson, J. P., Leesang, T. E., Mohammad, S., & Cimmino, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2021.675780 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Impact of Oxidative Stress on Ascorbate Biosynthesis in Chlamydomonas via Regulation of the VTC2 Gene Encoding a GDP-l-galactose Phosphorylase
Urzica, E. I., Adler, L. N., Page, M. D., Linster, C. L., Arbing, M. A., Casero, D., Pellegrini, M. A., Merchant, S., & Clarke, S. G. (2012) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m112.341982 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
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Glyoxalase 1 Modulation in Obesity and Diabetes
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Protection and controlled release of vitamin C by different micro/nanocarriers
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l ‐Galactono‐γ‐lactone dehydrogenase from Arabidopsis thaliana, a flavoprotein involved in vitamin C biosynthesis
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Inactivation dates of the human and guinea pig vitamin C genes
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Psychopharmacology of COVID-19
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The effect of Vitamin C on melanin pigmentation – A systematic review
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Differential transcriptional regulation of l-ascorbic acid content in peel and pulp of citrus fruits during development and maturation
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Vitamin C Is an Essential Antioxidant That Enhances Survival of Oxidatively Stressed Human Vascular Endothelial Cells in the Presence of a Vast Molar Excess of Glutathione
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The participation of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of bronchial asthma
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Assessment of the mode of action underlying development of rodent small intestinal tumors following oral exposure to hexavalent chromium and relevance to humans
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Tocopherol metabolism, oxidation and recycling under high light stress in Arabidopsis
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Formation of glucuronic acid from uridinediphosphate glucuronic acid
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Mechanism and regulation of the formation of D-glucuronate, the precursor of vitamin C, in rat liver
Linster, C. L. (2006) · DIAL (Catholic University of Leuven)
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Rapid Stimulation of Free Glucuronate Formation by Non-glucuronidable Xenobiotics in Isolated Rat Hepatocytes
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L-Gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase expression rescues vitamin C-deficient Arabidopsis (vtc) mutants
Radzio, J., Lorence, A., Chevone, B. I., & Nessler, C. L. (2003) · Plant Molecular Biology · doi:10.1023/b:plan.0000023671.99451.1d · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Glucuronate, the precursor of vitamin C, is directly formed from UDP‐glucuronate in liver
Linster, C. L., & SCHAFTINGEN, E. V. (2006) · FEBS Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05172.x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citation

Authors: Linster, C. L., & Van Schaftingen, E.
Affiliations: de Duve Institute (BE)
ORCID: Linster, Carole L.
Venue: The FEBS Journal
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2006-12-06
Volume: 274
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-22
ISSN: 1742-464X (ISSN-L)
1742-4658
DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05607.x
OpenAlex: W2065016714
Cited by: 757
References: 159
Citations by year: 2026: 20 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 65 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 44 · 2012: 37
FWCI: 2.57
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
orbilu.uni.lu
Licence: cc-by-nc-sa
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: FEBS Journal (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Digital Access to Libraries (submittedVersion)
Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Luxembourg) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
Topics: Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Vitamin C and Antioxidants Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Biochemistry › Antioxidant Activity and Oxidative Stress
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Redox biology and oxidative stress
Keywords: vitamin C, ascorbic acid biosynthesis, UDP-glucuronate, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, aldehyde reductase, aldo-keto reductase superfamily, L-gulonolactone oxidase, SMP30, regucalcin, dehydroascorbic acid, glutathione, vitamin C degradation, scurvy
MeSH terms: Animals, Ascorbic Acid, Carbohydrate Dehydrogenases, Escherichia coli, Glucuronates, Humans, Hydrolysis, Mammals, Models, Biological, Pentose Phosphate Pathway, Uridine Diphosphate Glucuronic Acid, L-Gulonolactone Oxidase

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Vitamin C. Biosynthesis, recycling and degradation in mammals

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