Hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure, counterregulatory responses, and therapeutic options in type 1 diabetes
Open accessAbstract
Hypoglycemia remains a major barrier to the achievement of target levels of glycemic control for most individuals with insulin-dependent type 1 diabetes (T1D). Both the loss of β cells and an accompanying defect in the α cell response to hypoglycemia predispose patients with T1D to the development of low blood glucose. Increased glucose variability, exposure to hypoglycemia, and impaired awareness of hypoglycemia all contribute to increased risk of experiencing severe hypoglycemia, which is explained by progressive impairment in epinephrine secretion and autonomic symptom generation in response to hypoglycemia leading to defective glucose counterregulation and hypoglycemia unawareness that characterize hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure (HAAF). Interruption of HAAF requires interfering with the mechanisms of brain adaptation to low blood glucose that affect central glucose sensing and the autonomic response to hypoglycemia, or avoidance of hypoglycemia that may allow for eventual recovery of counterregulatory and autonomic symptom responses. Strategies for hypoglycemia avoidance that include continuous glucose monitoring may reduce, but do not eliminate, clinically significant hypoglycemia, with ongoing counterregulatory defects and impaired awareness of hypoglycemia. Complete avoidance of hypoglycemia can be achieved following pancreatic islet transplantation and allows for the restoration of counterregulatory and autonomic symptom responses that evidences the potential for reversing HAAF in T1D.
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In people with diabetes, an episode of severe hypoglycemia increases the risk for a subsequent event, partly because of impaired counterregulation.
“In people with diabetes, it is well established that an episode of severe hypoglycemia increases the risk for a subsequent event, partly because of impaired counterregulation (109).”
From 16. Diabetes Care in the Hospital: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2026 (2026) · cites this paper as [109]
In “Mechanisms for the development of hypoglycemia in T1D” (page unavailable), the paper says that people with type 1 diabetes who have both impaired hypoglycemia awareness and a prior severe episode are at substantially increased risk of a future severe episode. “Mechanisms for HAAF in T1D” explains that repeated hypoglycemia blunts counterregulatory defenses. The claim omits the impaired-awareness qualifier, treats a single severe episode as sufficient, and extends the finding beyond type 1 diabetes. (LLM, conf=0.85)
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Islet cell responses to glucose in human transplanted pancreas
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Early Metabolic Markers of Islet Allograft Dysfunction
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16. Diabetes Care in the Hospital: <i>Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2022</i>
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Phase 3 trial of human islet-after-kidney transplantation in type 1 diabetes
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Self-citation16. Diabetes Care in the Hospital: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2026
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Self-citationThe demise of islet allotransplantation in the United States: A call for an urgent regulatory update
Witkowski, P., Philipson, L. H., Kaufman, D. B., Ratner, L. E., Abouljoud, M. S., Bellin, M. D., Buse, J. B., KANDEEL, F. R., Stock, P. G., Mulligan, D. C., et al. (2020) · American Journal of Transplantation · doi:10.1111/ajt.16397 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Mini‐review: Glucagon responses in type 1 diabetes – a matter of complexity
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Islet sympathetic innervation and islet neuropathology in patients with type 1 diabetes
Campbell-Thompson, M., Butterworth, E., Boatwright, J., Nair, M. A., Nasif, L., Nasif, K., Revell, A., Riva, A., Mathews, C., Gerling, I., et al. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-85659-8 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Novel preparations of glucagon for the prevention and treatment of hypoglycemia
Hawkes, C. P., De Leon, D. D., & Rickels, M. R. (2019) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-019-1216-4 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationLkhagvasuren, B., Mee-inta, O., Zhao, Z.-W., Hiramoto, T., Boldbaatar, D., & Kuo, Y.-M. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroanatomy · doi:10.3389/fnana.2021.691777 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Flatt, A. J., Peleckis, A. J., DALTON-BAKES, C. V., Nguyen, H.-L., Ilany, S., MATUS, A. M., Malone, S. K., Goel, N., Jang, S., Weimer, J. E., et al. (2023) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2022.0506 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationTransplant Options for Patients With Diabetes and Advanced Kidney Disease: A Review
Kukla, A., Ventura‐Aguiar, P., COOPER, M. M., de Koning, E. J. P., Goodman, D. J., Johnson, P., Han, D. J., Mandelbrot, D. A., Pavlakis, M., Saudek, F., et al. (2021) · American Journal of Kidney Diseases · doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2021.02.339 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationTherapeutic Screening of Herbal Remedies for the Management of Diabetes
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Pancreatic islet reserve in type 1 diabetes
Flatt, A. J., Greenbaum, C. J., Shaw, J., & Rickels, M. R. (2021) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.14572 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationPolonsky, W. H., Guzman, S., & Fisher, L. (2023) · Clinical Diabetes · doi:10.2337/cd22-0131 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Huynh, T. (2020) · Clinical Biochemist Reviews · doi:10.33176/aacb-20-00008 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Monzon, A. D., Patton, S. R., & Koren, D. (2021) · Pediatric Pulmonology · doi:10.1002/ppul.25651 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Autonomic dysfunction and risk of severe hypoglycemia among individuals with type 2 diabetes
Kazé, A. D., Yuyun, M. F., Ahima, R. S., Rickels, M. R., & Echouffo-Tcheugui, J. B. (2022) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.156334 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationHoffman, E. G., D’Souza, N. C., Liggins, R. T., & Riddell, M. C. (2024) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2023.1295639 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Radovnická, L., Hásková, A., Do, Q. D., Horová, E., Navrátilová, V., Mikeš, O., Cihlář, D., Parkin, C. G., Grunberger, G., Prázný, M., et al. (2022) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2022.0152 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Malone, S. K., MATUS, A. M., Flatt, A. J., Peleckis, A. J., Grunin, L., Yu, G., Jang, S., Weimer, J. E., Lee, I., Rickels, M. R., et al. (2023) · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology · doi:10.1177/19322968231182406 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationGlycemia-Induced miRNA Changes: A Review
Al-Mahayni, S., Ali, M. K., Khan, M. A., Jamsheer, F., Moin, A. S. M., & Butler, A. E. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24087488 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Vieira, I. H., Barros, L. M., Baptista, C. F., Melo, M., Rodrigues, D. M., & Paiva, I. (2022) · Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome Clinical Research & Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2022.102525 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Infante, M., & Ricordi, C. (2023) · Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1080/17446651.2023.2168645 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Decoding the Significance of Alpha Cell Function in the Pathophysiology of Type 1 Diabetes
Carroll, J., Chen, J. Z.-J., Mittal, R., Lemos, J. R. N., Mittal, M., Juneja, S., Assayed, A., & Hirani, K. (2024) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells13221914 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Saudek, F., Hladiková, Z., Hagerf, B., Nemetova, L., Girman, P., Kříž, J., Marada, T., Habart, D., Berková, Z., Leontovyc, I., et al. (2022) · Transplantation Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.transproceed.2021.11.037 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
One hundred years of insulin: Is it time for smart?
Gilor, C., & Fleeman, L. M. (2022) · Journal of Small Animal Practice · doi:10.1111/jsap.13507 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Blood glucose trends in glycogen storage disease type Ia: A cross‐sectional study
Fukuda, T., Ito, T., Hamazaki, T., Inui, A., Ishige, M., Kagawa, R., Sakai, N., Watanabe, Y., Kobayashi, H., Wasaki, Y., et al. (2023) · Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease · doi:10.1002/jimd.12610 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Renard, É., Riveline, J., Hanaire, H. P., & Guerci, B. (2022) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.14644 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
MicroRNA Changes Up to 24 h following Induced Hypoglycemia in Type 2 Diabetes
Ramanjaneya, M., Bettahi, I., Pawar, K., Halabi, N. M., Moin, A. S. M., Sathyapalan, T., Abou‐Samra, A., Atkin, S. L., & Butler, A. E. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232314696 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The impact of technology on impaired awareness of hypoglycaemia in type 1 diabetes
Berry, S. A., Goodman, I., Heller, S. R., & Iqbal, A. (2025) · Therapeutic Advances in Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1177/20420188251346260 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
KAMIMOTO, J. L. J., Li, Z., Gal, R. L., Castle, J. R., Doyle, F. J., Jacobs, P. G., Martin, C. K., Beck, R. W., Calhoun, P. M., Riddell, M. C., et al. (2024) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgae115 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationNutritional Management of Athletes with Type 1 Diabetes: A Narrative Review
Cavallo, M., Fano, M. D., Barana, L., Dozzani, I., Bianchini, E., Pellegrino, M., Cisternino, L., Migliarelli, S., Giulietti, C., Pippi, R., et al. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16060907 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Baxter, F., Baillie, N., Dover, A. R., Stimson, R. H., Gibb, F. W., & Forbes, S. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0297601 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Fujisaki, N., Kosaki, Y., Nojima, T., Higaki, T., Yamada, T., Koga, H., Gochi, A., Naito, H., & Nakao, A. (2020) · Journal of the American College of Emergency Physicians Open · doi:10.1002/emp2.12093 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Wu, Y., Li, R., Zhang, Y., Long, T., Zhang, Q., & Li, M. (2022) · Biological Research For Nursing · doi:10.1177/10998004221115856 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Alanazi, W. A., Al-Harbi, N. O., Imam, F., Ansari, M. A., Alhoshani, A., Alasmari, A. F., Alasmari, F. F., Alanazi, M. M., & Ali, N. (2020) · Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology · doi:10.1111/1440-1681.13455 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Activation of nucleus accumbens μ‐opioid receptors enhances the response to a glycaemic challenge
Koekkoek, L. L., Kool, T., Eggels, L., van der Gun, L. L., Lamuadni, K., Slomp, M., Diepenbroek, C., Serlie, M. J., Kalsbeek, A., & la Fleur, S. E. (2021) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/jne.13036 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Veryanti, P. R., Sauriasari, R., Sartika, R. A. D., & Elya, B. (2024) · Current Diabetes Reviews · doi:10.2174/0115733998280552231228064154 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Glucagon-like peptide-1 and impaired counterregulatory responses to hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes
Rocha, G. R., & de Melo, F. F. (2024) · World Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.4239/wjd.v16.i2.99928 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Role of the Adrenal Medulla in Hypoglycaemia-Associated Autonomic Failure—A Diabetic Perspective
Senthilkumaran, M., Koch, C., Herselman, M. F., & Bobrovskaya, L. (2024) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo14020100 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
MATUS, A. M., Agni, A., Amiel, S. A., Riegel, B. J., Shaw, J. A., Speight, J., Rickels, M. R., & Lin, Y. K. (2025) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc25-2242 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationWu, C., Devireddy, R. R., Zazaian, A., Kambhatla, S., Alzohaili, O., & Saad, C. (2024) · Cardiovascular Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1097/xce.0000000000000319 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Missaoui, A. M., Belabed, W., & Mnif, F. (2025) · The Egyptian Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1186/s43162-025-00458-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Abitbol, A., Riddell, M. C., Peers, S. H., Simonson, E., Evans, M. L., Knop, F. K., & Liggins, R. (2026) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-026-06748-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Zhou, H., Zhang, Q. X., Zhu, G., Xu, W., Zhao, X., Gu, X., Cai, X., Zhu, X., & Li, R. (2026) · Journal of Diabetes Research · doi:10.1155/jdr/2961800 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Defining Outcomes for β-Cell Replacement Therapy
Rickels, M. R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20999-4_65 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Intestinal glucagon-like peptide-1 in hypoglycemic counterregulation for type 1 diabetes management
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Clinical, metabolic and hormonal features of the formation of impaired hypoglycemia awareness
Reva, I. А., & Bondar', I. A. (2021) · JOURNAL of SIBERIAN MEDICAL SCIENCES · doi:10.31549/2542-1174-2021-4-97-107
Octreotide to treat severe hypoglycaemia in Guillain-Barre syndrome
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İnsülin 100 Yıllık Mucize Hormon
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Activation markers of the stress system in patients with type 1 diabetes during hypoglycemia
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(2026) · ADA Clinical Compendia · doi:10.2337/db20261-33
- Authors
- Rickels, M. R.
- Affiliations
- Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rickels, Michael R.
- ORCID
- Rickels, Michael R.
- Venue
- Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2019-08-06
- Volume
- 1454
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 68-79
- ISSN
- 0077-8923 (ISSN-L)
- 1749-6632
- PMC
- PMC6945804
- OpenAlex
- W2966077489
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 1.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01dk091331-10)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01-DK-091331)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Diabetes and associated disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Pancreatic function and diabetes
- Keywords
- hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure, type 1 diabetes, hypoglycemia, counterregulatory response, hypoglycemia unawareness, epinephrine secretion, autonomic symptoms, beta cell destruction, glycemic variability, continuous glucose monitoring, islet transplantation
- MeSH terms
- Autonomic Nervous System, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1, Humans, Hypoglycemia, Islets of Langerhans Transplantation
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