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Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework
Open accessAbstract
Throughout the sport-science and sports-medicine literature, the term “elite” subjects might be one of the most overused and ill-defined terms. Currently, there is no common perspective or terminology to characterize the caliber and training status of an individual or cohort. This paper presents a 6-tiered Participant Classification Framework whereby all individuals across a spectrum of exercise backgrounds and athletic abilities can be classified. The Participant Classification Framework uses training volume and performance metrics to classify a participant to one of the following: Tier 0: Sedentary; Tier 1: Recreationally Active; Tier 2: Trained/Developmental; Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level; Tier 4: Elite/International Level; or Tier 5: World Class. We suggest the Participant Classification Framework can be used to classify participants both prospectively (as part of study participant recruitment) and retrospectively (during systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses). Discussion around how the Participant Classification Framework can be tailored toward different sports, athletes, and/or events has occurred, and sport-specific examples provided. Additional nuances such as depth of sport participation, nationality differences, and gender parity within a sport are all discussed. Finally, chronological age with reference to the junior and masters athlete, as well as the Paralympic athlete, and their inclusion within the Participant Classification Framework has also been considered. It is our intention that this framework be widely implemented to systematically classify participants in research featuring exercise, sport, performance, health, and/or fitness outcomes going forward, providing the much-needed uniformity to classification practices.
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TL;DR
The paper proposes a 6-tier Participant Classification Framework to standardize how exercise and sport-science research participants are classified by training volume, performance metrics, and skill level. It aims to replace subjective labels such as “elite” with a flexible continuum from sedentary individuals to world-class athletes, usable prospectively and retrospectively.
Key findings
- The framework defines Tier 0: Sedentary; Tier 1: Recreationally Active; Tier 2: Trained/Developmental; Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level; Tier 4: Elite/International Level; and Tier 5: World Class.
- Reported population estimates include Tier 0 ≈46% global and ≈52% Australian; Tier 1 ≈35%–42% global and ≈30% Australian; Tier 2 ≈12%–19% global and ≈18% Australian; Tier 3 ≈0.014% global and ≈0.027% Australian; Tier 4 ≈0.0025% global and ≈0.0055% Australian; Tier 5 <0.00006% global and <0.001% Australian.
- Classification should prioritize objective, quantitative information over subjective terminology; for example, “recreationally active” participants with <150 minutes/week activity should be classified as Tier 0: Sedentary.
- Sport-specific adaptations are provided: team sports are classified mainly by team/league/position; endurance, middle-distance/power, and speed/strength sports can use performance standards; precision/skill, racquet, and combat/weight-making sports likely rely heavily on world rankings.
Methods
- Conceptual/position paper: the framework was developed by content/discipline experts with elite sport and academic experience, building on prior classification literature.
- It uses training volume/physical activity metrics, performance standards, skill level, and global/continent-specific population statistics; detailed population calculations are in supplementary material.
- The paper provides prospective classification guidance, a flowchart, retrospective classification rules (e.g., median tier, higher tier when participants span two tiers, separate cohorts when intentionally compared, “insufficient information” when data are unclear), and sport-specific examples including basketball, track and field, and snowboard.
Limitations
- Stated: the first iteration focuses on absolute performance rankings untroubled by age; future versions should consider age categories such as junior and masters competition.
- Stated: the framework was designed with nondisabled participants at the forefront, and classifying Paralympic athletes is more challenging due to impairment heterogeneity, small or fluctuating field sizes, and changing disability classification protocols; future versions should target these populations.
- Stated and evident: fitness status at the time of testing is not currently accounted for, sport-specific examples are not intended as rigid criteria, and retrospective use may be limited when studies lack clear participant information, leading to an “insufficient information” classification.
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In the paper
“Tier 4: Elite/International Level includes ∼0.003% to 0.006% of the population based on our estimates of participation rates in international-level competitions (see Supplementary Material [available online]).”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > A New Paradigm for Participant Training and Performance Classification
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In the paper
“Tier 2: Trained/Developmental is estimated from national reports of sport participation rates to include ∼12% to 19% of the population.[25][26][27]”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > A New Paradigm for Participant Training and Performance Classification
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Terms such as “trained,” “highly trained,” and “well-trained” also seem to be highly subjective, with variations around the participants training load, training history, and the intent of the training commitment.3,4”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“There is evidence that athletic success might be explained by different attributes, or that athletic caliber may influence the response to various interventions.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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“An investigation examining 91 publications, which defined their participants as either “elite” or “expert” across a range of sports, found that the range of this term encompassed athletes participating in national-level competitions up to athletes winning medals at major international competition.2”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“these benefits have not been seen when similar interventions were implemented in “elite” and “highly trained” athletes.[8][9][10]”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Currently, there is no common perspective or terminology to characterize the caliber and training status of an individual or cohort.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“the sports science and sports medicine literature, from elite athletes through to sedentary individuals, has evolved over time without a common perspective or terminology to characterize the caliber and training status of a participating individual or group of individuals.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“More recently, 2 reviews further developed cycling-based classification protocols, terminology, and performance indicators in both male 4 and female participants.3 These frameworks consist of 5 performance levels, which encompass untrained through to professional cyclists, and purposely use neutral terminology”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Furthermore, there are numerous examples of action sports athletes who have transferred skills gained in one domain to an entirely different domain 18 and have surpassed the top competitors in the sport who have had >10,000 hours of training.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] source
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In the paper
“Additionally, time-based metrics of training are unlikely to be comparable across sports due to the nature of training”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 42
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level is the first tier of the present framework in which performance standards are defined and represent only ∼0.01% to 0.03% of the population (see Supplementary Material [available online]).”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > A New Paradigm for Participant Training and Performance Classification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“On a global scale, females represented 49% and 41% of total competitors at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games, respectively, a vast improvement toward equality from the 38% and 26% who competed at Sydney in 2020.50”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Gender Parity Within Sport.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] source
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In the paper
“For example, at the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, the T34 women's 100-m track race equated to a 24% difference between first and eighth, whereas the men's T64 event over the same distance had a 6.3% differential.58”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > The Paralympic Athlete
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- Not checked yetcites [58] source
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In the paper
“Here, performance standards for participation at the national level is higher in the United States, compared to Canada, despite being higher than countries with smaller populations such as Australia.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Sports category
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In the paper
“In fact, in the women's Para Va'a (water paddling sport) at the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, 58 the silver medal was won by a 51-year-old, an athlete that transitioned between multiple Paralympic sports.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > The Paralympic Athlete
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [58] source
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In the paper
“This is commonplace in wheelchair rugby too, with a recent study reporting a mean participant age of 32 (7) years.60”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > The Paralympic Athlete
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] source
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In the paper
“For example, although targeted periodization of carbohydrate availability has been shown to enhance training adaptation and endurance performance in subjects described as “trained athletes,” 6,7”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“For example, the basic principle of the specificity of research, which states that the results of a study should be applied only to populations and/or scenarios which are similar to those involved in the research design, 5 requires objective features to define the targeted individuals/groups.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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- Not checked yetcites [5] source
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In the paper
“Indeed, the term “elite” subjects might be one of the more overused and ill-defined terms in the exercise science literature. 1”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] source
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In the paper
“Comparisons across and within studies, which try to identify the similarities or differences between members of a sporting or active population, require robust definitions of the cohort.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“However, this has yet to be established within the exercise sciences/physiology domain, and the rigidity of classification does not consider the many nuances that are apparent between different sports and athletes.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“Swann and colleagues proposed that 5 criteria should be used to assess an athlete's ability: (1) highest performance standard, (2) level of success, (3) years of experience, (4) competitiveness of the sport within the athlete's country, and (5) global competitiveness of the sport, with responses used in a mathematical equation to differentiate a “semi-elite” athlete from a “world-class” athlete.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] source
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In the paper
“These population estimates have been based on both global and continent-specific statistics to demonstrate how densely populated each of these tiers may be”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > A New Paradigm for Participant Training and Performance Classification
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In the paper
“Several country estimates suggest that between 48% and 54% of individuals do meet current physical activity guidelines, [21][22][23][24]”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > A New Paradigm for Participant Training and Performance Classification
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In the paper
“Within the cycling specific literature, these classification systems have been widely adopted and have likely facilitated better comparison and interpretation of scientific results.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“whereas in an elite sporting context other factors such as biological age 16 and genetics 17 are undoubtedly important.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“However, these classification systems are highly specific to a single sport and rely on extensive physiological and anthropometric data for classification to occur.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“However, the results of existing and future studies cannot be effectively harvested unless there is uniformity around the descriptive characteristics and classification of athletic populations.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“Early attempts to define an elite performer were based on time spent practicing a task, with suggestions that 10 years 14 or 10,000 hours 15 are required to achieve expert level.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Abstract
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In the paper
“According to Stefani's taxonomy of sports rating systems, 40 team sports can be described as “object sports” where the primary objective is to manipulate an object while another competitor is in direct confrontation.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] source
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In the paper
“Conversely, sports such as Sailing, Equestrian, Modern Pentathlon, and Ski Jump all require expensive equipment, expert coaching, and/or the necessary climate for participation to occur.These barriers explain small global participation rates with a subsequent effect on the number of athletes who compete at the elite level.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Depth of Participation in the Sport.
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In the paper
“An example of this is the men's long jump, in which the world record was set more than 30 years ago (1991: 8.95 m) and only one other athlete has performed to within 2% of the world record since that time.43”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] source
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In the paper
“Typically, studies which include higher caliber athletes (Tier 3-5) provide a greater depth and breadth of information regarding participant training status.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Retrospectively
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In the paper
“In these sports, performance can be quantified, allowing comparisons over time and across locations.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
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In the paper
“Furthermore, sports such as BMX racing and Mountain Bike are performed on different courses with different features, and therefore absolute race time is not comparable across racing locations.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
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In the paper
“For example, while rowing is a time-based independent sport, boat speed can be highly influenced by environmental factors such as water temperature, salinity, wind, and water current direction.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
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In the paper
“Due to the dynamic nature of these sports, using performance times or world-record standards for classification using the Participant Classification Framework is unsuitable”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
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In the paper
“It should be recognized that sports have different rates of global participation.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Depth of Participation in the Sport.
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In the paper
“While the majority of sports in these categories easily allow performance to be quantified in a standardized way, there are a few exceptions.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the aim of this framework is to provide a resource that can be adapted to all athletes and research participants, we recognize there will be key differences between sports.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
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In the paper
“Since the 1960s, East African countries, particularly Kenya and Ethiopia have dominated the sport of endurance running.43”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Sports category
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“A final consideration, which is not currently accounted for within the framework, is the fitness status at the time of testing, relative to an individual's classification according to the framework.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > How to Use the Participant Classification Framework
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In the paper
“For instance, the marathon at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games was performed in very hot and humid conditions (∼28°C and ∼70% humidity), 47 leading to slower race times”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47]
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In the paper
“Similarly, the International Judo Federation also uses a points-based system, allocating points based on final competition standings, with increased points awarded at major-level competitions.49”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“These sports often have a larger dependence on skill rather than physiology or strength as a primary determinant of success, which can be factored into classification.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, an emerging athlete who has been classified as Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level but has had limited racing opportunities may outperform athletes at Tier 4: Elite/International Level.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > How to Use the Participant Classification Framework
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These sports often feature a small competitor pool with variable performance levels at major events.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Depth of Participation in the Sport.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When world records are dated or current performances are not close to these standards, world-leading performance is a far more appropriate metric from which to derive performance standards.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We envisage that this framework can also be used in a retrospective manner to classify participant cohorts for the purpose of audits, reviews, and/or meta-analyses.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Retrospectively
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“For instance, separation between first and eighth finisher in the 100 m women's freestyle swimming final at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games was 1.27 seconds or 2.4% of winning race time.50”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Depth of Participation in the Sport.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [50] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These sport-specific adjustments ensure that the quality of athletes included within a tier is not diluted by smaller field sizes, nor are exceptional athletes misclassified because of the larger number of high-performing athletes within an event.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Sports category
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For instance, running is relatively inexpensive and has minimal requirement for skill or equipment for participation at the recreational level, making it popular worldwide (>200 countries represented at global championships).”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Depth of Participation in the Sport.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Often, points are awarded to athletes based on competition outcomes which contribute to their world ranking, with many sports adjusting the way points are obtained to prioritize key events.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Classifying Athletes Across Different Sports
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Identifying with a particular sport typically differentiates Tier 2: Trained/Developmental from Tier 1: Recreationally Active individuals”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Retrospectively
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“For instance, although the men's 50-km race walk was included as an Olympic Event from 1932 to 2020, the women's event has never featured on the Olympic Games program, and since World Athletics started recording times in 2017, only 182 athletes have posted verified times.43”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Gender Parity Within Sport.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, it is very common within Para sport for individuals to remain internationally competitive in their late 30s and 40s.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > The Paralympic Athlete
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, there are athletes who can remain internationally competitive in their late 30s and 40s (eg, road cycling and long-distance triathlon).”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Chronological Age-The Junior Athlete Versus the Masters Athlete
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Moreover, many competitive hand cyclists have sustained a spinal cord injury later in life and compete internationally well into their 40s.59”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > The Paralympic Athlete
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59]
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, these effects are not uniform across sports and even within sports; there are examples of extraordinary individuals who may achieve world-class status at a relatively early age, even in sports where intensive training loads commence in childhood (eg, swimming and gymnastics).”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Chronological Age-The Junior Athlete Versus the Masters Athlete
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The depth within Para sports fluctuates greatly, which can be explained by the total number of athletes with the impairment type and/or the talent pathway programs and coaching support systems.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > The Paralympic Athlete
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“There are numerous other examples of countries excelling at particular sports: Chinese athletes have dominated the sport of table tennis, winning 52% of all available Olympic medals in the sport, while US men's”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Sports category
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is likely the result of a hot climate and extensive coastline, where sports associated with water are culturally valued and have high participation rates.”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Sports category
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Australia represents another example of concentrated sport success, with 60% of medals won at Olympic Games by Australians involving sports associated with water, whereas just 2.7% have come from Winter Sports.52”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > Sports category
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Within the context of the Participant Classification Framework, there are a number of factors which add an additional layer of complexity to categorizing Para athletes, such as”
§ Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework > The Paralympic Athlete
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Rests on an assumption: Within team sports such as wheelchair basketball, sports classification is based on players' functional capacity to complete the skills necessary to play the sport, and players are allocated points.
The paper relies on this without support.
Age plays a role in sports performance through biological maturity, training and competition maturity, and biological decline associated with aging.
“Age plays a role in sports performance since it can interact with the biological maturity of the young athlete, training, and competition maturity across the athlete's development pathway, and the biological decline associated with aging.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The use and consistency for classifying training status in Paralympic sport remains in its infancy compared to nondisabled sport.
“Despite the growing interest in Paralympic sport, the use and consistency for classifying training status remains in its infancy when compared to nondisabled sport.”
The paper relies on this without support.
At IPC sanctioned events, the primary diagnosis of a participant must be stable and belong to one of the 10 impairment types (8 physical impairments, as well as visual and intellectual impairments).
“It's even more complex, since at International Paralympic Committee (IPC) sanctioned events, the primary diagnosis of a participant must be stable and belong to one of the 10 impairment types (8 physical impairments, as well as visual and intellectual impairments).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Within team sports such as wheelchair basketball, sports classification is based on players' functional capacity to complete the skills necessary to play the sport, and players are allocated points.
“However, within team sports such as wheelchair basketball, sports classification is based on the players' functional capacity to complete the skills necessary to play the sport, and players are allocated points.”
The paper relies on this without support.
As with the introduction of any new event, it takes time to build depth within the field to see the best of human performance.
“As with the introduction of any new event, it takes time to build depth within the field to see the best of human performance.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“According to Santos et al. [49] and McKay et al. [50], the inclusion criteria for 1-RM and RT experience ensure that all subjects are at least advanced, well-trained athletes.”
From How reliable is the labeling of a commercial phytosteroid product? A 12-week randomized double-blind training study (2025) · cites this paper as [50]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“According to the classification proposed by McKay et al. (2022), the sample represents 12 world‐class athletes, (Tier 5) such as Olympic or World Championship medalists, and 40 international‐level athletes, (Tier 4) such as national team members, typically within 7% of world‐leading performances.”
From Agreement between muscle saturation breakpoints and lactate thresholds: Muscles comparison and sex difference in world‐class Nordic skiers (2026) · cites this paper as McKay et al. (2022)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Stefani citation points to a different reference
MinorThe text cites reference 40 for Stefani's taxonomy, but reference 40 is a Spotrac entry; Stefani's taxonomy is listed as reference 39.
“According to Stefani's taxonomy of sports rating systems, 40”
“40. Spotrac. Sports contracts, salaries, caps, bonuses & transactions.”
Citations
Cites
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Flagged first, then by citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 701–800 of 1,006
Power Profile during Cycling in World Triathlon Series and Olympic Games
Cejuela, R., Arévalo-Chico, H., & Sellés, S. (2023) · Journal of Sports Science and Medicine · doi:10.52082/jssm.2024.25 · Cited by 7
Sellés, S., Arévalo-Chico, H., Fernández‐Sáez, J., & Cejuela, R. (2024) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports12020053 · Cited by 8
SantaBarbara, K., Helms, E. R., Armour, M., & Harris, N. (2024) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/17479541241228986 · Cited by 7
Vascular adaptation to exercise: a systematic review and audit of female representation
Thompson, S. L., Brade, C. J., Henley-Martin, S. R., Naylor, L. H., & Spence, A. L. (2024) · American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00788.2023 · Cited by 7
Ketogenic Diets Are Not Beneficial for Athletic Performance: Response to Noakes
BURKE, L. M., & Whitfield, J. (2024) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000003346 · Cited by 7
Self-citationAnalysis of peak locomotor demands in women’s football–the influence of different epoch lengths
Baptista, I., Winther, A. K., Johansen, D., & Pettersen, S. A. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0303759 · Cited by 7
Trends and Missing Links in (De)Hydration Research: A Narrative Review
Rebelo‐Marques, A., Coelho-Ribeiro, B., Lages, A. D. S., Andrade, R., Afonso, J. R., Pereira, R., Batista, A. S., Teixeira, V. H., & Jácome, C. I. O. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16111709 · Cited by 9
Li, X., & Xue, K. (2024) · Journal of Sports Science and Medicine · doi:10.52082/jssm.2024.475 · Cited by 7
Gimunová, M., Bozděch, M., Bernacikovà, M., Fernandes, R. A., Kumstát, M., & Paludo, A. C. (2024) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.17533 · Cited by 7
Self-reported reproductive health of retired elite women’s footballers: a cross-sectional study
Carmody, S., den Hollander, S., Elliott-Sale, K. J., Mountjoy, M. L., Thornton, J. S., Massey, A., Kerkhoffs, G. M. M. J., & Gouttebarge, V. (2024) · BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine · doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2024-002028 · Cited by 7
Roussel, O. P., Pignanelli, C., Hubbard, E. F., Coates, A. M., Cheng, A. J., Burr, J. F., & Power, G. A. (2024) · Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2024-0189 · Cited by 7
Johns, K. L., Potrac, P., & Hayes, P. R. (2024) · International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance · doi:10.1123/ijspp.2023-0467 · Cited by 7
Stevenson, S., Suppiah, H. T., Ruddy, J. D., Murphy, S., & Driller, M. W. (2024) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s471017 · Cited by 8
Kowalski, T., Obmiński, Z., Waleriańczyk, W., & Klusiewicz, A. (2024) · Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.resp.2024.104353 · Cited by 7
Konrad, A., & Paternoster, F. K. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app12031596 · Cited by 7
Gabriel, A., Paternoster, F. K., Konrad, A., Horstmann, T., & Pohl, T. (2022) · Journal of Sports Science and Medicine · doi:10.52082/jssm.2022.182 · Cited by 7
Jaén‐Carrillo, D., Ruiz‐Alias, S. A., Chicano-Gutiérrez, J. M., Ruiz‐Malagón, E. J., Roche-Seruendo, L. E., & García‐Pinillos, F. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22093201 · Cited by 7
Houtmeyers, K. C., Helsen, W. F., Jaspers, A., Nanne, S., McLaren, S. J., Vanrenterghem, J., & Brink, M. S. (2022) · International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance · doi:10.1123/ijspp.2022-0026 · Cited by 7
Dunne, D. M., Lefevre, C. E., Cunniffe, B., Impey, S. G., Tod, D., Close, G. L., Morton, J. P., & Murphy, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.911412 · Cited by 7
Urwin, C. S., Snow, R. J., Condo, D., Snipe, R. M. J., Wadley, G. D., Convit, L., & Carr, A. J. (2023) · International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism · doi:10.1123/ijsnem.2022-0083 · Cited by 7
Ruiz‐Alias, S. A., Pérez‐Castilla, A., Soto-Hermoso, V. M., & García‐Pinillos, F. (2022) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-1979-5849 · Cited by 7
Sprint cycling rate of torque development associates with strength measurement in trained cyclists
Connolly, S., Peeling, P., Binnie, M. J., Goods, P. S. R., Latella, C., Taylor, J. L., Blazevich, A. J., Timmerman, W. P., & Abbiss, C. R. (2023) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-023-05143-1 · Cited by 7
SMITH, R. W., Housh, T. J., Arnett, J. E., Anders, J. P. V., Neltner, T. J., Ortega, D. G., Schmidt, R. J., & Johnson, G. O. (2023) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-023-05163-x · Cited by 7
Villalón-Gasch, L., Penichet-Tomás, A., Olaya-Cuartero, J., & Jiménez-Olmedo, J. M. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app13053151 · Cited by 7
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“…versus untrained), sports participation (i.e., athlete versus nonathlete), participant’s level (i.e., based on Participant Classification Framework [e.g., tier 0 versus tier 1]) [38] and frequency and duration of intervention [15, 55] which could influence the results of effects of training.”
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“In the United States (U.S.), collegiate sports are university-based sports programs in which student-athletes are full-time students and elite athletes at the same time [50, 60].”
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Metadata
- Authors
- McKay, A. K. A., Stellingwerff, T., Smith, E. S., Martin, D. T., Mujika, I., Goosey-Tolfrey, V. L., Sheppard, J., & Burke, L. M.
- Venue
- International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
- Publisher
- Human Kinetics
- Published
- 2022-02-01
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 317-331
- ISSN
- 1555-0265 (ISSN-L)
- 1555-0273
- OpenAlex
- W4206651290
- Cited by
- 3,093
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1002 · 2025: 871 · 2024: 632 · 2023: 402 · 2022: 155
- FWCI
- 296.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Keywords
- training status, training volume, performance indicators, recreational athletes, national athletes, world-class athletes, participant recruitment, gender parity, youth athletes, masters athletes, Paralympic athletes, terminology standardization
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Retrospective Studies, Sports, Sports Medicine, Exercise, Athletic Performance, Athletes
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