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The prevalence of loneliness across 113 countries: systematic review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Objectives: To identify data availability, gaps, and patterns for population level prevalence of loneliness globally, to summarise prevalence estimates within World Health Organization regions when feasible through meta-analysis, and to examine temporal trends of loneliness in countries where data exist. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Data sources: Embase, Medline, PsycINFO, and Scopus for peer reviewed literature, and Google Scholar and Open Grey for grey literature, supplemented by backward reference searching (to 1 September 2021) Eligibility criteria for selecting studies: Observational studies based on nationally representative samples (n≥292), validated instruments, and prevalence data for 2000-19. Two researchers independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias using the Joanna Briggs Institute checklist. Random effects meta-analysis was conducted in the subset of studies with relatively homogeneous research methods by measurement instrument, age group, and WHO region. Results: Prevalence data were available for 113 countries or territories, according to official WHO nomenclature for regions, from 57 studies. Data were available for adolescents (12-17 years) in 77 countries or territories, young adults (18-29 years) in 30 countries, middle aged adults (30-59 years) in 32 countries, and older adults (≥60 years) in 40 countries. Data for all age groups except adolescents were lacking outside of Europe. Overall, 212 estimates for 106 countries from 24 studies were included in meta-analyses. The pooled prevalence of loneliness for adolescents ranged from 9.2% (95% confidence interval 6.8% to 12.4%) in South-East Asia to 14.4% (12.2% to 17.1%) in the Eastern Mediterranean region. For adults, meta-analysis was conducted for the European region only, and a consistent geographical pattern was shown for all adult age groups. The lowest prevalence of loneliness was consistently observed in northern European countries (2.9%, 1.8% to 4.5% for young adults; 2.7%, 2.4% to 3.0% for middle aged adults; and 5.2%, 4.2% to 6.5% for older adults) and the highest in eastern European countries (7.5%, 5.9% to 9.4% for young adults; 9.6%, 7.7% to 12.0% for middle aged adults; and 21.3%, 18.7% to 24.2% for older adults). Conclusion: Problematic levels of loneliness are experienced by a substantial proportion of the population in many countries. The substantial difference in data coverage between high income countries (particularly Europe) and low and middle income countries raised an important equity issue. Evidence on the temporal trends of loneliness is insufficient. The findings of this meta-analysis are limited by data scarcity and methodological heterogeneity. Loneliness should be incorporated into general health surveillance with broader geographical and age coverage, using standardised and validated measurement tools. Systematic review registration: PROSPERO CRD42019131448.
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“Data based on nationally representative samples within World Health Organization regions pre-COVID-19 suggest that only 9.2% to 14.4% of adolescents experienced loneliness.16”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [16]
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Garnow, T., Garmy, P., Edberg, A., & Einberg, E. (2022) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1080/17482631.2022.2132653 · Cited by 36
“Loneliness is even described as a global public health issue (Nyqvist et al., 2016; Surkalim et al., 2022), and a form of social inequality (Junttila et al.”
BackgroundPitak, P., Tasai, S., Kumpat, N., Songkla, P. N., Fuangchan, A., Krass, I., & Dhippayom, T. (2023) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2023.10.015 · Cited by 27
Loneliness in the Daily Lives of People With Mood and Psychotic Disorders
Moran, E. K., Shapiro, M., Culbreth, A. J., Nepal, S. K., Ben‐Zeev, D., Campbell, A. T., & Barch, D. M. (2024) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbae022 · Cited by 27
Santini, Z. I., Thygesen, L. C., Andersen, S., Tolstrup, J. S., Koyanagi, A., Nielsen, L., Meilstrup, C., Koushede, V., & Ekholm, O. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-024-01283-3 · Cited by 42
“Moreover, social isolation is a pervasive societal problem, that can contribute to morbidity and mortality (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015; Santini, Jose, et al., 2020), and is experienced by a substantial proportion of the population in many countries (Surkalim et al., 2022).”
Seifert, N. (2024) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-024-10302-3 · Cited by 29
“Loneliness is a major challenge for contemporary society, and it affects a significant proportion of the population (Surkalim et al., 2022).”
InfluentialAmendola, S., Cerutti, R., & von Wyl, A. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0291341 · Cited by 28
A lonely planet: time to tackle loneliness as a public health issue
Ding, D., Eres, R., & Surkalim, D. L. (2022) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.o1464 · Cited by 25
Self-citationSeewer, N., Skoko, A., Käll, A., Andersson, G., Luhmann, M., Berger, T., & Krieger, T. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-57254-0 · Cited by 27
Prevalence and burden of loneliness in COPD: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Alqahtani, J. S., Arowosegbe, A., Aldhahir, A. M., Alghamdi, S. M., Alqarni, A. A., Siraj, R. A., AlDraiwiesh, I. A., Alwafi, H. H., & Oyelade, T. (2024) · Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2024.107768 · Cited by 24
Wang, X., Cao, X., Yu, J., Jin, S., Li, S., Chen, L., Liu, Z., Ge, X., & Lu, Y. (2024) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-05609-2 · Cited by 30
“In a recent systematic review and meta-analysis, substantial geographical variation in loneliness prevalence has been reported [56].”
BackgroundNeurogenetics and Epigenetics of Loneliness
Bowirrat, A., Elman, I., Dennen, C. A., Gondré-Lewis, M. C., Cadet, J. L., Khalsa, J., Baron, D., Soni, D., Gold, M. S., McLaughlin, T., et al. (2023) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s423802 · Cited by 23
“42,43 While most of surveyed people across all ages consistently report alienation, the risk of loneliness seems to increase with age.”
BackgroundAnisman, H., Doubad, D., Asokumar, A., & Matheson, K. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105859 · Cited by 26
Sundqvist, A. J. E., Nyman-Kurkiala, P., Ness, O., & Hemberg, J. A. V. (2024) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1080/17482631.2024.2422142 · Cited by 30
“A substantial proportion of individuals in many countries worldwide experience loneliness (Surkalim et al., 2022).”
BackgroundHo, T. T. Q., & Nguyễn, H. T. (2022) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2022.2068523 · Cited by 27
“…ranges from 6.7% to 19.8% (e.g., Costa Rica: 6.7%; Peru: 10.5%; Bolivia: 10.9%; Jamaica: 19.5%; Morocco: 19.8%; Uruguay: 7.1%; Indonesia: 9.6%; Philippines: 14.2%; Thailand: 7.9%; Malaysia: 7.0%; Peltzer & Pengpid, 2017; Pengpid & Peltzer, 2021; Sauter et al., 2020; Surkalim et al., 2022).”
InfluentialWest, T. N., Prinzing, M., Garton, C., Berman, C. J., Zhou, J., Hale, J., Gratch, J. S., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2024) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2024.2394451 · Cited by 24
“Loneliness is a worldwide health concern (Surkalim et al., 2022), now at epidemic levels in the U.S. and hitting young adults especially hard.”
Ezzatvar, Y., Caballero, Ó., Bastías, D. M. D., Sepulveda, R. A. Y., & García‐Hermoso, A. (2025) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2025.112124 · Cited by 25
High levels of loneliness in people with hoarding disorder
Yap, K., Timpano, K. R., Isemann, S., Svehla, J., & Grisham, J. R. (2023) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2023.100806 · Cited by 24
Carrasco, P. M., Crespo, D. P., García, A. I. R., Ibáñez, M. L., Rubio, B. M., & Montenegro-Peña, M. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01708-7 · Cited by 29
“Pooled prevalence data for Europe and USA is 13% [13].”
BackgroundIn-person interventions to reduce social isolation and loneliness: An evidence and gap map
Welch, V. A., Ghogomu, E. T., Dowling, S., Barbeau, V. I., Al‐Zubaidi, A. A. A., Beveridge, E., Bondok, M., Desai, P., Doyle, R., Huang, J. X., et al. (2024) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1408 · Cited by 30
Nascimento, M. D. M., Lampraki, C., Marques, A., Gouveia, É. R., Adsuar, J. C., & Ihle, A. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-19463-0 · Cited by 27
“Recent review studies with meta-analyses estimated the prevalence of loneliness in older adults in high-income countries at 27.6% [9], reaching rates of 18.7% to 24.2% in eastern European countries [10].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRoberts, J. A., Young, P. D., & David, M. E. (2024) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241295870 · Cited by 27
Context of walking and loneliness among community-dwelling older adults: a cross-sectional study
Mizuta, S., Uchida, K., Sawa, R., Nakamura, J., Encho, H., Akisue, T., & Ono, R. (2023) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-023-04043-5 · Cited by 21
Prevalence of Loneliness in Older Adults: A Scoping Review
Schroyen, S., Janssen, N., Duffner, L. A., Veenstra, M. Y., Pyrovolaki, E., Salmon, É., & Adam, S. (2023) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/2023/7726692 · Cited by 25
Jafarlou, S., Azimi, I., Lai, J., Wang, Y., Labbaf, S., Nguyen, B., Qureshi, H., Marcotullio, C., Borelli, J. L., Dutt, N. D., et al. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0298949 · Cited by 22
“The U.S. has previously announced a loneliness epidemic [66] and several recent studies are focusing on loneliness across different populations [67].”
Loneliness in adolescence: prevalence, developmental contexts, and interventions
Verity, L., Burke, L., & Qualter, P. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1696981 · Cited by 25
Naughton‐Doe, R., Barke, J., Manchester, H., Willis, P. B., & Wigfield, A. (2022) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x2200099x · Cited by 20
Hou, P. K., Xue, H., Zhang, Y., Ping, Y., Zheng, Y., Wang, Y., Yao, Z., Xie, X., Dai, H., & Liu, Y. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12101341 · Cited by 20
“As a public health problem, loneliness can increase the risk of cognitive impairment, dementia, and death [13,14].”
BackgroundLiang, Y. Y., Chen, Y., Feng, H., Xue, H., Nie, Y., Ai, Q. H., Ma, J., Yang, L., Zhang, J., & Ai, S. (2023) · General Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/gpsych-2023-101153 · Cited by 21
Lee, H., Yong, S. Y., Choi, H., Yoon, G. Y., & Koh, S. B. (2024) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2024.1389476 · Cited by 21
Boonpattharatthiti, K., Songkla, P. N., Chantara, J., Koomsri, C., Krass, I., Chaiyakunapruk, N., & Dhippayom, T. (2024) · Journal of Diabetes Investigation · doi:10.1111/jdi.14285 · Cited by 28
“This approach of using a minimum sample size as a selection criterion has been employed in a previous meta-analysis investigating the prevalence of a speci fi c disease 13,14 .”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Surkalim, D. L., Luo, M., Eres, R., Gebel, K., van Buskirk, J., Bauman, A., & Ding, D.
- Affiliations
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- Royal Children's Hospital (AU)
- University of Technology Sydney (AU)
- Sydney School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
- Corresponding author
- Ding, Ding
- ORCID
- Venue
- BMJ
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2022-02-09
- Volume
- 376
- Pages
- e067068
- ISSN
- 1756-1833 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8826180
- OpenAlex
- W4211106541
- Cited by
- 821
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 220 · 2025: 236 · 2024: 183 · 2023: 138 · 2022: 44
- FWCI
- 20.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- BMJ (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Keywords
- loneliness, prevalence of loneliness, cross-national comparison, adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, older adults, temporal trends, WHO regions, loneliness and isolation
- MeSH terms
- Demography, Humans, Loneliness, Global Health, Prevalence
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