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The prevalence of loneliness across 113 countries: systematic review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Objectives: To identify data availability, gaps, and patterns for population level prevalence of loneliness globally, to summarise prevalence estimates within World Health Organization regions when feasible through meta-analysis, and to examine temporal trends of loneliness in countries where data exist. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Data sources: Embase, Medline, PsycINFO, and Scopus for peer reviewed literature, and Google Scholar and Open Grey for grey literature, supplemented by backward reference searching (to 1 September 2021) Eligibility criteria for selecting studies: Observational studies based on nationally representative samples (n≥292), validated instruments, and prevalence data for 2000-19. Two researchers independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias using the Joanna Briggs Institute checklist. Random effects meta-analysis was conducted in the subset of studies with relatively homogeneous research methods by measurement instrument, age group, and WHO region. Results: Prevalence data were available for 113 countries or territories, according to official WHO nomenclature for regions, from 57 studies. Data were available for adolescents (12-17 years) in 77 countries or territories, young adults (18-29 years) in 30 countries, middle aged adults (30-59 years) in 32 countries, and older adults (≥60 years) in 40 countries. Data for all age groups except adolescents were lacking outside of Europe. Overall, 212 estimates for 106 countries from 24 studies were included in meta-analyses. The pooled prevalence of loneliness for adolescents ranged from 9.2% (95% confidence interval 6.8% to 12.4%) in South-East Asia to 14.4% (12.2% to 17.1%) in the Eastern Mediterranean region. For adults, meta-analysis was conducted for the European region only, and a consistent geographical pattern was shown for all adult age groups. The lowest prevalence of loneliness was consistently observed in northern European countries (2.9%, 1.8% to 4.5% for young adults; 2.7%, 2.4% to 3.0% for middle aged adults; and 5.2%, 4.2% to 6.5% for older adults) and the highest in eastern European countries (7.5%, 5.9% to 9.4% for young adults; 9.6%, 7.7% to 12.0% for middle aged adults; and 21.3%, 18.7% to 24.2% for older adults). Conclusion: Problematic levels of loneliness are experienced by a substantial proportion of the population in many countries. The substantial difference in data coverage between high income countries (particularly Europe) and low and middle income countries raised an important equity issue. Evidence on the temporal trends of loneliness is insufficient. The findings of this meta-analysis are limited by data scarcity and methodological heterogeneity. Loneliness should be incorporated into general health surveillance with broader geographical and age coverage, using standardised and validated measurement tools. Systematic review registration: PROSPERO CRD42019131448.
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“Data based on nationally representative samples within World Health Organization regions pre-COVID-19 suggest that only 9.2% to 14.4% of adolescents experienced loneliness.16”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [16]
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Cobb, R. D., & Gross, T. (2026) · European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics · doi:10.1145/3822301.3822302
Delgado‐Ron, J. A., Orpana, H., Roddick, C. M., Mulligan, K., Pinel, E. C., Helm, P. J., Oliffe, J. L., Coplan, R. J., Benoit, C., Joordens, S., et al. (2026) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2026.101970
“…were operationalized through the DJGLS-6, which has been thoroughly validated and used in multiple countries (De Jong Gierveld & Van Tilburg, 2006; Surkalim et al., 2022), which asks respondents to report agreement with six statements reflecting the presence or absence of emotional and social…”
Einsamkeit und Emotionsregulation
Dworschak, C. (2026) · Die Psychotherapie · doi:10.1007/s00278-026-00875-9
Engerdal kommune – Engerdaelie
Broderstad, A. R., Lindberg, M. H., Fosse, A., Abelsen, B., Siri, S. R. A., Melhus, M., Thomassen, E., Brøndbo, S., & Siri, Á. (2026) · Septentrio Reports · doi:10.7557/7.8946
Exploring the dual continuum of belonging and loneliness among college students in the US
Reeves, B., Geller, K. S., & Branscum, P. (2026) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053261488447
Built Environment and Loneliness Trajectories Among Middle-Aged and Older Adults in China
Li, Z., Lü, Y., Zou, X., Yuan, Q., & Yang, L. (2026) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-026-01129-4
“A meta-analysis covering 113 countries revealed that loneliness is prevalent and persistent world-wide, though its prevalence varies across nations and is generally higher levels among older adults [41].”
Schöllgen, I., Buchallik, F., Lohmann-Haislah, A., & Schade, H. M. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-70101-8
Martín‐María, N., Pemau, A., Rico‐Uribe, L. A., de la Torre‐Luque, A., Losada‐Baltar, A., & Lara, E. (2026) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2026.119868
Naqvi, S. H., Tahmasebipour, N., & Babazadeh, M. H. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440261491624
Loneliness and all-cause mortality in the United States
Akinyemi, O. A., Eze, O., Fasokun, M. E., Mba-Madubuike, I., Ogundipe, T., Singleton, D., Ogunsakin, A., Khalil, S., Gordon, K., Michael, M. B., et al. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0354773
Broderstad, A. R., Lindberg, M. H., Fosse, A., Abelsen, B., Siri, S. R. A., Melhus, M., Eriksen, A. M. A., Thomassen, E., Brøndbo, S., & Siri, Á. (2026) · Septentrio Reports · doi:10.7557/7.8948
Special issue editorial: Loneliness and the built environment
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Namsos kommune - Nåavmesjenjaelmie tjïelte
Broderstad, A. R., Lindberg, M. H., Fosse, A., Abelsen, B., Siri, S. R. A., Melhus, M., Eriksen, A. M. A., Thomassen, E., Brøndbo, S., & Siri, Á. (2026) · Septentrio Reports · doi:10.7557/7.8958
Wu, Q., Ding, D., Farnbach, S., HaGani, N., Miller, M., Owen, K., & Clare, P. J. (2026) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.70620
Self-citationKanwal, P., & Kumar, G. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-2600-1318-2.ch001
Broderstad, A. R., Lindberg, M. H., Fosse, A., Abelsen, B., Siri, S. R. A., Melhus, M., Eriksen, A. M. A., Thomassen, E., Brøndbo, S., & Siri, Á. (2026) · Septentrio Reports · doi:10.7557/7.8976
Broderstad, A. R., Lindberg, M. H., Fosse, A., Abelsen, B., Siri, S. R. A., Melhus, M., Eriksen, A. M. A., Thomassen, E., Brøndbo, S., & Siri, Á. (2026) · Septentrio Reports · doi:10.7557/7.8962
Stefanidou, T., Li, S., Lagan, K., Evlat, G., Gray, H., Harju‐Seppänen, J., Jarvis, A., O’Sullivan, M., Talwar, S., Lewis, G., et al. (2026) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-026-05252-6 · Cited by 1
“The search terms were adapted from key reviews: Wang et al. [23] and Surkalim et al. [27].”
An integrated life-course and multilevel psychosocial theoretical framework for loneliness (LAMP)
Suanet, B., Aartsen, M., & Gerstorf, D. (2026) · Advances in Life Course Research · doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2026.100765
Association of loneliness and substance use among emergency department patients
Sacco, D. L., Anderson, Q. R., Cadet, K., Sichel, C. E., Marziali, M. E., Blanchard, A. M., Agnello, F., Souza, J. N. D., & Mannes, Z. L. (2026) · The American Journal of Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2026.09.061
Childhood loneliness and deficit-accumulation frailty progression in mid-to-late life
Wang, J., Jiao, D., 赵小玉, Tian, Y., Tao, L., & Guo, X. (2026) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2026.106441
Bonab, H. R., Hosseini, R. S., Mohammadzadeh, M., Afshr, P. F., & Bayat, M. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10782740/v1
Broderstad, A. R., Lindberg, M. H., Fosse, A., Abelsen, B., Siri, S. R. A., Melhus, M., Eriksen, A. M. A., Thomassen, E., Brøndbo, S., & Siri, Á. (2026) · Septentrio Reports · doi:10.7557/7.8966
Unpacking loneliness interventions for older adults: a Delphi study
Norlin, J., McKee, K., & Dahlberg, L. (2026) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2026.106446
Katsiamaki, V., & Zissi, A. (2026) · Journal of Humanistic Psychology · doi:10.1177/00221678261488178
Papon, V., Jahn, B., Sroczynski, G., Litt, J., Coll‐Planas, L., Masó-Aguado, M., Arvandi, M., Santamaria, J., Kuchin, I., Puntscher, S., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1891830
“The prevalence of loneliness is high around the world, ranging from 9% in south-east Asia, 11% in western Europe, 14% in the eastern mediterranean region, and more than 27% in eastern Europe (Surkalim et al., 2022).”
Pakarinen, E., & Lerkkanen, M. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-9187-9_1
Metadata
- Authors
- Surkalim, D. L., Luo, M., Eres, R., Gebel, K., van Buskirk, J., Bauman, A., & Ding, D.
- Affiliations
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- Royal Children's Hospital (AU)
- University of Technology Sydney (AU)
- Sydney School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
- Corresponding author
- Ding, Ding
- ORCID
- Venue
- BMJ
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2022-02-09
- Volume
- 376
- Pages
- e067068
- ISSN
- 1756-1833 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8826180
- OpenAlex
- W4211106541
- Cited by
- 821
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 220 · 2025: 236 · 2024: 183 · 2023: 138 · 2022: 44
- FWCI
- 20.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- BMJ (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Keywords
- loneliness, prevalence of loneliness, cross-national comparison, adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, older adults, temporal trends, WHO regions, loneliness and isolation
- MeSH terms
- Demography, Humans, Loneliness, Global Health, Prevalence
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